Fluctuation (English spelling)

Japanese: ゆらぎ(英語表記)fluctuation
Fluctuation (English spelling)

The phenomenon in which a physical quantity fluctuates around an average value. It is also called fluctuation. When observing a physical quantity of a certain system, the actual measured value is the average value, and the value of the physical quantity itself fluctuates from time to time or from place to place. This type of fluctuation is called fluctuation.

For example, consider the pressure of a gas sealed in a suitable container. Microscopically, this gas is composed of an enormous number of molecules. These molecules undergo random molecular motion within the container, but when they collide with a wall, they are bounced off by the wall, and in so doing, the molecules exert a force on the wall. Due to the law of action and reaction in mechanics, the wall exerts a force in the opposite direction, pushing the gas. This force is applied to all the gas molecules, and converted to a unit area, which is the macroscopic pressure of the gas. Now, let's focus on a certain point on the wall (the gray part in the illustration ) and track the pressure there over time. Because there are more or less colliding molecules, and because the speed and direction of collisions are irregular, the pressure is not constant as a function of time, but fluctuates around an average value P , as shown in the illustration . This type of fluctuation is called fluctuation.

In statistical mechanics, we consider an ensemble of systems of interest and study the probability distribution of physical quantities therein. The deviation of each individual system in that ensemble from the average is the fluctuation. If we use the symbol 〈 〉 to represent the average in an ensemble, then the average of physical quantity A is 〈 A 〉, and its variance is σ 2 = 〈( A - 〈 A 〉) 2 〉. In this case, the deviation from the average is represented by σ. Since σ 2 is a quantity proportional to the size N of the system, in the thermodynamic limit, the deviation from the average σ can be ignored compared to the average itself. In addition, the response to an external field a that is generally conjugate to A is

where T is temperature and kB is the Boltzmann constant. In this way, a proportional relationship exists between the fluctuation 〈A 2 〉 - 〈A 〉 2 and the response d 〈A 〉 / da . This relationship is called the Kirkwood relationship, and is an example of the fluctuation-dissipation theorem in a broad sense. In addition, since the specific heat C is the temperature of the conjugate external field, the expression changes slightly, but it is still given by the fluctuation of the energy E.


As we saw above, under normal conditions, the deviation from the average of a macroscopic system is small, but near the critical point, the fluctuations become abnormally large. In this case, the response also diverges. Therefore, near the critical point of the mixture of two types of liquid, the density fluctuations also become large, and when the magnitude of the fluctuations becomes comparable to the wavelength of light, strong scattering occurs, resulting in the system appearing like milk. This phenomenon is called critical protein light.

In magnetic materials, the fluctuation of magnetization becomes abnormally large near the temperature at which the material transitions from ferromagnetism to paramagnetism (called the Curie point), and as the material approaches the Curie point, the magnetic susceptibility becomes infinite.

[Ryuzo Abe and Seiji Miyashita]

[References] | Kinematic theory of gas molecules | Ferromagnetic bodies | Magnetic bodies | Paramagnetic bodies | Statistical mechanics | Thermodynamics | Boltzmann constant
Fluctuation (when gas is sealed in a container) [Diagram]
©Shogakukan ">

Fluctuation (when gas is sealed in a container) [Fig.


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

物理量が平均値を中心として変動する現象。揺動ともいう。ある体系の物理量を観測する場合、実際の測定値はその平均値で、物理量そのものの値は時々刻々あるいは場所によって変動している。このような変動がゆらぎである。

 たとえば、適当な容器に気体を封入したとして、その圧力を考える。この気体は、微視的にみれば、莫大(ばくだい)な数の分子から構成されている。これらの分子は容器中で乱雑な分子運動を行うが、分子が壁に衝突すると壁により跳ね返され、その際に分子は壁に力を及ぼす。力学の作用・反作用の法則により、逆に壁は気体を押す向きに力を及ぼす。このような力を気体分子全体に対して加え、それを単位面積当りに換算したものが気体の巨視的な圧力である。ところで、壁のある箇所(の灰色の部分)に注目し、そこでの圧力を時間的に追跡したとする。衝突する分子が多かったり、少なかったり、またその速さや方向が不規則なため、圧力は時間の関数として一定ではなくのように平均値Pの周りで変動する。この種の変動がゆらぎである。

 統計力学では、注目する体系の集団(アンサンブル)を考え、そこでの物理量の確率分布を考察する。それらの集団での個々の系での平均からのずれがゆらぎである。アンサンブルでの平均を〈 〉の記号で表すことにすると、物理量Aの平均は〈A〉であり、その分散はσ2=〈(A-〈A〉)2〉である。このときの平均からのずれはσで表される。σ2は系の大きさNに比例する量であるので平均からのずれσは熱力学極限では平均自身に比べて無視できるようになる。また、一般にAに共役な外場aに対する応答

で与えられる。ここで、Tは温度、またkBはボルツマン定数である。このように、ゆらぎ〈A2〉-〈A2と応答dA〉/daの間に比例関係が成り立つ。この関係はカークウッドKirkwoodの関係とよばれ、広い意味での揺動散逸定理の例になっている。また、比熱Cは共役な外場の温度であるため、表式は少し変わるがやはりエネルギーEのゆらぎで与えられる。


 上でみたように通常の状態では、巨視的体系の平均からのずれは小さいが、臨界点近傍ではゆらぎが異常に大きくなる。この場合は応答も発散する。そのため、二種類の液体の混合状態の臨界点近傍では、密度のゆらぎも大きくなり、その大きさが光の波長と同程度になるとき強く散乱が起き、その結果、系はミルク状にみえる。この現象を臨界タンパク光という。

 磁性体でも強磁性から常磁性へと転移する温度(キュリー点という)の近くで、磁化のゆらぎが異常に大きくなり、キュリー点に近づくと、磁化率は無限大となる。

[阿部龍蔵・宮下精二]

[参照項目] | 気体分子運動論 | 強磁性体 | 磁性体 | 常磁性体 | 統計力学 | 熱力学 | ボルツマン定数
ゆらぎ(容器に気体を封入した場合)〔図〕
©Shogakukan">

ゆらぎ(容器に気体を封入した場合)〔図…


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