Muromachi period

Japanese: 室町時代 - むろまちじだい

Periods and names

Broadly speaking, it refers to the period from 1336 (Engen 1, Kenmu 3) when Ashikaga Takauji established the Kenmu Code and established the shogunate, to 1573 (Tensho 1) when Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki was expelled by Oda Nobunaga. The period up to the unification of the Northern and Southern Courts in 1392 (Genchu 9, Meitoku 3) is often called the Northern and Southern Courts period, and the period from 1467 (Onin 1) onwards is often called the Warring States period. Therefore, narrowly speaking, the Muromachi period is from 1392 to the Onin War. It has long been understood to be broadly interpreted based on the central government of the Muromachi shogunate, but today academically, there is a strong tendency to pursue the unique political, socio-economic structures and historical meanings of the Northern and Southern Courts period and the Warring States period. The name "Muromachi" comes from the fact that in 1378 (Tenju 4/Eiwa 4), Ashikaga Yoshimitsu built a new residence, known as the "Flower Palace," in Muromachi, Kitakoji, Kyoto (Kamigyo Ward, Kyoto City), which became the base of the shogunate and was called Muromachidono thereafter. This period is also sometimes called the Ashikaga period after the name of the shogun's family. The Northern and Southern Court period and the Warring States period are described in those sections, and the following mainly focuses on the Muromachi period in the narrow sense.

[Keiji Nagahara]

Political processes and forms of rule

The unification of the Northern and Southern Courts essentially meant the disappearance of the Southern Court, which meant that the divisions and conflicts between the samurai in the central and local areas no longer had a legitimate basis, and the stability of the Muromachi Shogunate improved. In the local areas, the vassals of the Shugo (provincial governors) increasingly made the local lords their vassals, and the feudal system of lord and vassal with the Shogun at the top became widespread, which strengthened the unification. In 1394 (Oei 1), Shogun Yoshimitsu handed over the position of Shogun to his nine-year-old son Yoshimochi and became Daijo Daijin (Grand Minister of State), and the following year in 1395 he resigned from this position and became a monk. This was in order to become the head of the samurai class, as well as to occupy the highest position among the court nobles as Daijo Daijin (Grand Minister of State), and to assume a position equivalent to the Cloistered Emperor as the head of all national politics. Therefore, even after becoming a monk, Yoshimitsu continued to hold the reins of power, and in 99 he provoked and killed Ouchi Yoshihiro, who held great influence among non-family shugo, and also intimidated the temple and shrine forces by confiscating the right to impose warehouse duties held by Mount Hiei on sake and earthen storehouses in Kyoto City, concentrating power in the hands of the samurai, nobles, and the ruling classes of temples and shrines. Next, in 1401, Yoshimitsu sent his first tribute mission to Ming, and thereafter referred to himself externally as the "King of Japan," a premise for which was the success of this domestic unification. He then built Kitayamadai, which he used as a monastery for the Imperial Court and conducted government affairs, but he died in 1408. In terms of national history, Yoshimitsu was the first to establish de facto samurai kingship.

Yoshimochi, who took over the reins of government from Yoshimitsu, was at odds with his father and moved from Kitayama-tai to a new residence at Sanjo-bomon, and in 1411 refused to allow Ming envoys into Kyoto, severing diplomatic relations. When former Kanto Kanrei Uesugi Zenshu started a rebellion in 1416-1417, Yoshimochi assisted Kamakura Kubo Ashikaga Mochiuji in suppressing the rebellion and worked to stabilize the shogunate. In 1423, he handed over the position of shogun to his son Yoshikazu, but Yoshikazu died of illness after two years, and Yoshimochi died in 1428 (Shocho 1).

Because Yoshimochi died without deciding on a successor, powerful shugo daimyo such as Shiba, Hosokawa, and Hatakeyama, as well as the head priest of Daigo-ji Temple and head priest of Sanboin Temple, Mansei, who was highly trusted by Yoshimitsu and Yoshimochi and was deeply involved in government affairs, discussed the matter of a successor but could not decide on one. In the end, they drew lots to choose Yoshimochi's younger brother, Shoren-in Gien, and had him return to secular life, becoming Yoshinori, and supported him. Soon after he took office, Kitabatake Mitsumasa, governor of Ise Province, supported the son of Emperor Gokameyama of the Southern Court and rebelled. This was followed by the large-scale Shocho peasant uprisings, which demanded a new and virtuous government, and spread widely across Omi, Yamashiro, Yamato and the surrounding provinces. In the following year (Eikyo 1), peasant uprisings in Harima fought against the army of the shugo. Furthermore, anti-shogunate activities by Kamakura kubo Mochiuji also came to the surface. In terms of shogunate politics, Yoshinori strengthened the Bugyonin system in order to suppress the power of powerful shugo daimyo, including the Kanrei, and also strengthened the military power by organizing the bastard children and local lords of the shugo daimyo families into the shogun's direct servants, thereby enhancing the autocratic power of the shogun. He also supported the generals of northern Kanto and the southern Oshu region as Kyoto fuchishu, and further strengthened his opposition to Mochiuji by allied with Ashikaga Mitsutada, who was stationed in Mutsu Sasakawa.

The Kamakura Kubo, originally the most important branch office of the shogunate and responsible for governing the eastern provinces, was given considerable power, except for the power to appoint and dismiss shugo (provincial governors), but this led them to take anti-shogunate actions from an early stage. Mochiuji's father, Mitsukane, plotted a rebellion in cooperation with Ouchi Yoshihiro during the Oei War (1399). This conflict between Kamakura and Kyoto came to a halt in 1438 when Mochiuji attempted to kill Kanto Kanrei Uesugi Norizane, who had dissuaded him from military action, and Norizane fled to Kozuke and sought assistance from the shogunate. This was the Eikyou War. Yoshinori mobilized the armies of Suruga, Shinano, and Echigo to drive Mochiuji into a corner, forcing him to commit suicide in Kamakura the following year. Furthermore, in 1440, Yuki Ujitomo and other generals supporting Mochiuji launched a large-scale anti-shogunate movement at Yuki Castle in Shimousa, where they supported Mochiuji's surviving children, Prince Yasu, Prince Haru, and Prince Eiju. However, this was also suppressed by Uesugi Norizane and the large army mobilized by the shogunate.

However, in 1441 (Kakitsu 1), Akamatsu Mitsusuke, the governor of Harima, Bizen, and Mimasaka, invited Shogun Yoshinori to his residence on the pretext of a celebration of the victory in the Battle of Yuki, and assassinated him on the spot. Mitsusuke had already been under pressure from Yoshimochi and Yoshinori, and since Yoshinori had pursued Isshiki Yoshitsura and others, it seems he feared he would soon be executed as well, so he went ahead and did so. Mitsusuke went down to his territory of Harima to fight, but the shogunate sent Yamana Mochitoyo and others to defeat him (the Kakitsu Rebellion).

However, this incident marked the beginning of the weakening of the power of the Muromachi Shogunate. Shortly after Yoshinori was killed, Hatakeyama Mochikuni, who had fled to Kawachi due to Yoshinori's displeasure, entered Kyoto at the head of his army and attempted to replace kanrei Hosokawa Mochiyuki. While the Hosokawa clan held the shugo titles of Sanuki, Awa, Tosa, Awaji, Bitchu, and Tamba, among other domains, and developed a powerful shugo domain system, Hatakeyama held the shugo titles of Noto, Ecchu, Kawachi, and Kii, but was somewhat inferior, and had long been trying to regain control of the shogunate (he became kanrei in place of Mochiyuki the following year). Mochikuni skillfully seized the uprising of the Tokusei Ikki caused by the replacement of the Shogun, and used the pressure of the Ikki to his advantage. At this time, the Shogunate first issued a Tokuseirei that applied to only Yamashiro Province, but the following month it had to issue a Tokuseirei for the whole country (the Kakitsu Tokuseirei).

After Yoshinori's sudden death, his 8-year-old son Yoshikatsu was installed as the new ruler, but two years later he died of an illness and was succeeded by his younger brother Yoshishige (later renamed Yoshimasa). As Yoshimasa was also a young man, Yoshinori's wife Hino Shigeko had a strong voice as his guardian and tried to suppress the power of the shugo. During this time, Ashikaga Mochiuji's surviving son, Prince Eiju, was returned to Kamakura as the kubo (shogun), and when he came of age he took the name Shigeuji. However, Shigeuji also ran against the shogunate, and based himself in Koga in Shimousa, where he was called the Koga kubo. Therefore, Yoshimasa made his younger brother, who had become a monk, return to secular life and made him Masatomo, and sent him east, but he stayed in Horikoshi in Nirayama, Izu, and was not allowed to enter Kamakura, and was called the Horikoshi kubo. In addition, around this time, peasant uprisings demanding amnesty broke out almost every year. In response, the shogunate issued a system called buichisen (a system whereby amnesty would be granted if debtors paid one-tenth or one-fifth of the amount of their debt), or conversely, issued a prohibition on amnesty, which would end amnesty if creditors paid buichisen, thus filling financial shortfalls. Yoshimasa was a spendthrift, and was described as having "nine fair ceremonies in one lifetime," indulging in lavish entertainment such as ceremonies, theater (Sarugaku), cherry blossom viewing, and temple and shrine tours. Even in the unprecedented famine and mass starvation of 1461 (Kansho 2), he showed no signs of regret, and Emperor Gohanazono, unable to bear it any longer, even wrote a poem to admonish him.

Since Yoshimitsu, the Shogun began to intervene in the selection of the head of the daimyo family as a means of controlling the shugo daimyo. Yoshinori and Yoshimasa, in particular, frequently intervened, which led to internal conflicts within the daimyo family. Yoshimasa's intervention also intensified the dispute over the succession of Hatakeyama Mochikuni between his adopted son Masanaga and his biological son Yoshinari. In addition, Hosokawa Katsumoto wanted Akamatsu Masanori to restore the Akamatsu family in order to check Yamana Mochitoyo, and Yoshimasa supported this, which intensified the conflict between Hosokawa and Yamana. After Yoshimasa chose his younger brother Yoshimi as the successor to the Shogunate, his wife Hino Tomiko gave birth to a son Yoshihisa, and although there were twists and turns, the clan eventually split into two, with Yoshimasa, Yoshihisa, Hosokawa Katsumoto, and Hatakeyama Masanaga on the one hand and Yoshimi, Yamana Mochitoyo, and Hatakeyama Yoshinari on the other.Furthermore, the Shiba clan and others also split, and many shugo daimyo and kokujin joined the fray, leading to the Onin War.

The Onin War, which lasted from 1467 (Onin 1) to 1477 (Bunmei 9), reduced Kyoto to a wasteland, and in the provinces, it finally eroded the estates of the shugodai and kokujin (local lords), who had remained in the provinces. It also overthrew the shugo through a revolution, and set out on the path to becoming a sengoku daimyo. A few years after the end of the war, Yoshimasa began construction of the Higashiyama Villa and moved there. Hino Tomiko, who had been at odds with her husband, lived separately and strengthened the collection of tolls from the seven Kyoto barriers, and put her efforts into rice speculation and money lending. During this time, Yoshimasa and Tomiko failed to respond appropriately to the continued fighting between Hatakeyama Yoshinari and Masanaga, and in 1485, the Yamashiro Province Ikki revolted, forcing both armies to withdraw, and the provincial Ikki self-governance was realized in the southern Yamashiro region for over 10 years. This incident further damaged the authority of the shogunate, which had already been tarnished by the Onin and Bunmei Wars, and immediately following it were a series of incidents symbolizing the beginning of the Warring States period, such as the suicide of Shugo Togashi Masachika in the uprising of the Ikko sect of Kaga, and the seizure of Nirayama in Izu by Isenagauji (Hojo Soun) in the east. In 1487 (Chokyo 1), Yoshimasa's son Yoshihisa raised an army to pursue Omi Shugo Rokkaku Takayori, aiming to restore the authority of the shogun, but he died in battle due to excessive drinking at a young age, and this marked the end of the era in which the shogun was at the center of the shogunate. The shogunate continued to exist for nearly a century after this, being supported by powerful central figures of each period, beginning with Hosokawa Masamoto, and although they were sometimes manipulated or even killed, they only managed to survive in name only.

[Keiji Nagahara]

Economy and Society

The Muromachi period was a time of remarkable economic development. In agriculture, advances in irrigation, drainage and fertilization techniques, as well as improved and diversified varieties, led to the stabilization and intensive use of cultivated land. While land productivity increased, the weakening of manorial lordship led to the sale of surplus land left in the hands of the peasant class as kajishi (land trusts), and the myoshu class, who accumulated the right to collect kajishi, grew in power. The myoshu class were influential farmers who belonged to the "peasant" class, and became the leading class in the ties of village communities called so (sō), further developing regional alliances of soson villages and strengthening their autonomous rights. They often took the lead in fights to demand reductions in taxes and labor duties from manorial lords, and in peasant uprisings calling for an amnesty from the shogunate.

As a result of this improvement in productivity and peasant struggles, the amount of agricultural produce and processed agricultural products sold by farmers increased, and the commercialization of agricultural produce and processed agricultural products, especially ramie and perilla, progressed. In addition, regular markets appeared all over the country, and the main ones became town markets. Ports that served as outer ports of Kyoto and Nara, such as Tsuruga, Obama, Otsu, Sakamoto, Yodo, Amagasaki, Hyogo, and Sakai, as well as Hakata, Onomichi, Anotsu, Ominato, Shinagawa, Mikuniminato, and Kambara no Tsu, also achieved urban prosperity due to the development of coastal shipping routes along the archipelago. Within rural areas, the division of labor in society was limited to blacksmithing, indigo dyeing, and carpentry, but the production of specialty products suited to local conditions, such as salt production, pottery, papermaking, and lumber, developed in various places.

The central city of Kyoto, in addition to being the traditional capital, experienced a remarkable population growth due to the establishment of the shogunate, the system of shugo (military governors) in Kyoto, the successive founding of Gozan Zen temples, and other factors. In addition to the products shipped in from all over the country, the city was also a thriving producer of luxury goods, including textiles, handicrafts, pottery, swords, and weapons, and this led to the development of many artisans. There were also at least 300 sake brewers in and around Kyoto, and many of them operated a storage and financial business called dokura. Dokura received large amounts of investment funds, called gosen, from third parties, but lent them to nobles and samurai who could use rice tax and manor control as collateral, rather than to commoners. One of the economic characteristics of the Muromachi period is that the circulation of currency developed rapidly, and local tributes were converted locally at a trading rate called washishi and paid in coins, and that the economy of the central ruling class became a monetary economy, leading to the development of a credit economy, including financial relations and foreign exchange transactions. However, one fact that cannot be overlooked is that, in connection with the development of these urban and economic functions and traditional ideas of impurity, people who worked in city cleaning, road construction, and disposal of dead cattle and horses, as well as low-class performers, were viewed as inferior. The main examples of this were sanjo, kawaramono, and shomonshi.

During this time, throughout the Muromachi period, the dissolution of the manor system progressed more and more. Since the Nanboku-cho period, manors with samurai land lords (jito) on their side, known as honjo lands, were subject to half-settlement and division. Even in the case of temple and shrine honjo ichienchi, which escaped this, the generalization of the contracted daikan system made it impossible for manor lords to directly exercise control over the land, and in many cases they only received a fixed amount of tax. Many public lands were transformed into shugo lands. Moreover, with the Onin and Bunmei Wars, most of the remaining manors were eroded by local lords, and the rights of the central lords fell into a state of ignorance. In their place, the shugo ryokoku system and the territorial rule of kokujin progressed, and the form of land ownership changed from manorial "shiki" ownership to unified territorial rule.

[Keiji Nagahara]

International Relations

The diplomacy and international relations of this era entered a new phase when Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368 and became Emperor Hongwu. The Ming Emperor sent envoys to neighboring countries to invite them to pay tribute, and as part of this, a Ming envoy came to Japan in 1369 (Shohei 24, Oan 2) to ask Prince Kaneyoshi of the Southern Court, who had influence in Kyushu at the time, to suppress the Wako (Japanese pirates) and pay tribute. At that time, the Wako were active from the Korean Peninsula to the coast of China, and both the Ming and Goryeo dynasties were strongly seeking to suppress them. In 1372 (Bunchu 1, Oan 5), a Ming envoy arrived in Hakata again, this time presenting a sovereign letter to the shogunate. Yoshimitsu sent an envoy, but it was rejected because he did not pay tribute. Imagawa Ryōshun then took independent action, such as returning the people captured by the wako pirates to Goryeo, so Yoshimitsu had to curb the diplomatic actions of Kaneyoshi and Ryōshun and hurry to monopolise diplomatic rights. Furthermore, Yoshimitsu learned that the Ming Dynasty would only accept those who submitted to the emperor and received a tribute, and had a policy of banning trade at the merchant level. In 1401 (Oei 8), when the national unification had reached a certain stage, Yoshimitsu sent an envoy to the Ming Emperor with tribute. In 1404, the Ming side also sent the Yongle Emperor's kango and the "King of Japan's Seal," and so-called kango trade began. Trade goods included sulfur, swords, and fans from Japan, and coins, raw silk, and medicinal herbs from the Ming. In the Korean Peninsula, when Yi Seong-gye, who also exerted his influence in suppressing the wako pirates, defeated Goryeo and established the Yi dynasty in 1392, Yoshimitsu sent envoys to establish diplomatic relations with him, but unlike the Ming Dynasty, there was no hierarchical relationship between the two. In 1419, Korea attacked Tsushima, believing it to be the base of operations for the wako pirates, but it soon realized that this was based on a misunderstanding, and thereafter established individual diplomatic relations with the So clan of Tsushima, as well as the Ōuchi and Kobayakawa clans of the west provinces.

At this time, the Ryukyu Islands were gradually unified, and the three powers of Chuzan, Nanzan, and Hokuzan were formed. In 1429 (Eikyo 1), Sho Hashi of Chuzan defeated the Hokuzan and Nanzan and succeeded in unifying the whole island, maintaining a relationship of mutual subordination, with Japan as its lips and teeth and the Ming as its support. At the same time, its merchants expanded widely to the South Seas and played an active role in transit trade between Japan and the Ming. In Japan, the kango trade with the Ming was temporarily suspended during the reign of Yoshimochi, but was revived during the reign of Yoshinori, but the number of envoys sent was generally small. Moreover, in the second half of the 16th century, the initiative was transferred to feudal lords such as Ouchi and Hosokawa, while the number of envoys sent in the Ryukyu Islands was far greater.

[Keiji Nagahara]

Religion and Culture

In terms of religion, the shogunate extended special protection to the Kyoto Five Mountains of Nanzen, Tenryu, Kennin, Tofuku, and Manju-ji (Nanzen-ji was placed above the Five Mountains when Shokoku-ji was founded), partly to suppress the power of the Nanto Hokurei faction, which had traditionally been linked to the nobility, and donated many estates to them. The Five Mountain Zen monks were knowledgeable in poetry, prose, and Chinese classics (Gozan literature), and were involved in politics and diplomacy through their ties with the shogunate. At the same time, the shogunate also established a monk registration system to strengthen its control over Zen temples and monks. Shun'oku Myoha was the first monk to be appointed monk registration, and thereafter it became customary for the chief priest of Rokuon-in at Shokoku-ji to serve in this role for successive generations.

As the Gozan Zen temples gained power, local temples of the Shingon and Tendai sects also converted to Zen Buddhism, and Zen Buddhism developed greatly in the regions. On the other hand, the Ji sect gained wide support among the common people, but after the appearance of Rennyo in the mid-Muromachi period and his preaching in Omi and Echizen, Jodo Shinshu (Ikko sect) spread among the common people, mainly in the Hokuriku and Tokai regions, and its followers often started to take part in Ikko Ikki uprisings.

In terms of culture, Zen influences were strong in architecture, gardens, and ink painting. This can be seen in various aspects of Kitayama and Higashiyama culture. The dry landscape gardens, such as those at Ryoanji Temple, are one of the most representative examples of this style, being simple and rich in symbolism. However, another important feature of the culture of the Muromachi period is that, unlike the Kamakura period, the culture moved away from religion and became more and more focused on lifestyle and culture. The Noh plays of Dengaku and Sarugaku, which were very popular during this period, were originally performed as religious ceremonies, but Sarugaku in particular gradually developed into an independent form of theater after Kan'ami and Zeami. Kyogen, which was performed between Sarugaku Noh plays, became entertainment plays full of wit and satire. The various lower-class performing arts, known as the arts of the lowly, were not unrelated to religion when they first came into being, but they all became more and more entertaining. In addition, the development of the Shoin-zukuri architectural style and the tea ceremony, which are inseparable from it, are even more essential aspects of daily life and culture. Furthermore, during this period, the basic form of Japanese cuisine was established, and in terms of clothing, the short-sleeved kimono, which had previously been nothing more than underwear, became outerwear, and women's clothing generally began to pursue a style that was light and comfortable to wear.

Another characteristic of Muromachi culture is the collectivity of the way culture was created and enjoyed. Renga (linked verse), which had been popular since the Northern and Southern Courts period, was enjoyed by many people at gatherings where they could freely participate, and as the Nijogawara Rakusho (Rakusho) says, "People everywhere perform renga and verse here and there, and they are enjoyed in a free and popular way." Sarugaku performances, which took the form of Kanjin Noh, were also open to the public, with stands set up at the Kamogawa Riverbank and open to spectators of all ranks. Furthermore, tea ceremonies often had the quality of a collective pastime, with people competing to guess the type of tea used. Sarugaku Noh, Renga, and tea all became refined and elevated as art forms in the course of their development, but they were characterized by their collectivity and popularity in their creation. It can be said that they were formed on the social foundations of meetings of so, which were the village communities and urban communities of the time.

[Keiji Nagahara]

"Kyoto City, ed.: The History of Kyoto 2 & 3" (1968, 1971, Gakugei Shorin)" ▽ " Ogawa Makoto, A Study of the History of the Development of the Ashikaga Clan Shugo (1980, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Sato Shinichi, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1980, Heibonsha)" ▽ "Nagahara Keiji, Society and the People during the Medieval Civil War (1977, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Nagahara Keiji, Society and the State in Medieval Japan (1982, NHK Publishing)" ▽ "Imatani Akira, A Study of the Process of the Disintegration of the Muromachi Shogunate (1985, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Imatani Akira, A Study of the Shugo Domain Control Institutions (1986, Hosei University Press)"

[References] | Sengoku period | Nanboku-cho period [Chronology] | Muromachi period (Chronology)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

時代区分と名称

広くは1336年（延元1・建武3）足利尊氏(あしかがたかうじ)が「建武式目(けんむしきもく)」を定め幕府を開いたときから、1573年（天正1）将軍足利義昭(よしあき)が織田信長によって追放されたときまでをさす。そのうち1392年（元中9・明徳3）の南北朝合体までをとくに南北朝時代とよび、1467年（応仁1）以降をとくに戦国時代とよぶことも多い。したがって、狭くは室町時代とは1392年以降応仁(おうにん)・文明(ぶんめい)の乱までということになる。室町幕府という中央政権を基準にして広く解するのが古くからのとらえ方であるが、今日学問的には、南北朝時代および戦国時代のそれぞれの政治・社会経済構造や史的意味の独自性を追求しようとする考え方が強い。「室町」という名称は、1378年（天授4・永和4）足利義満(よしみつ)が京都北小路室町（京都市上京(かみぎょう)区）に新邸、いわゆる「花の御所」を造営し、以後そこが室町殿とよばれて幕府の拠点となったことによる。なお、この時代を将軍家の家名によって足利時代とよぶこともある。南北朝時代、戦国時代についてはその項目に譲り、以下は主として狭義の室町時代について述べる。

［永原慶二］

政治過程と支配形態

南北朝合体は実質的には南朝の消滅であり、これによって中央・地方における武士の分裂抗争も名分的よりどころを失い、室町幕府の安定が進展した。地方では守護(しゅご)による国人(こくじん)の被官化が進み、将軍を頂点とする封建的主従制が貫徹していったことによって、統合が強まったのである。将軍義満は1394年（応永1）将軍職を9歳の子の義持(よしもち)に譲って太政(だいじょう)大臣となり、翌95年太政大臣も辞して出家した。これは、武家の頂点にたつとともに、太政大臣として公家(くげ)の最高の地位を占め、さらに法皇に準ずる国政全般の頂点的立場にたとうとする意図に出たものであった。したがって、義満は出家してもなお政権を掌握し続け、99年には、非一族守護のなかで大きな力をもつ大内義弘(おおうちよしひろ)を挑発して討つとともに、比叡山(ひえいざん)が京都市中の酒屋土倉(さかやどそう)に対して保持していた倉役賦課権を没収するなどして、寺社勢力にも威圧を加え、武家、公家、寺社諸支配層に君臨する権力を集中した。ついで、1401年義満は初めて明(みん)に入貢遣使し、以後対外的には「日本国王」を称したが、その前提はこのような国内統合の成功にあった。その後北山第(きたやまだい)を造営し、そこを院の仙洞(せんとう)に擬して政務をとったが、08年に死去した。国家史的には義満によって初めて事実上の武家王権が成立したのである。

　義満にかわって政権を行使するようになった義持は父と不和だったため、北山第から三条坊門の新邸に移り、1411年には明使の入京を拒否して国交を絶った。また16～17年に前関東管領(かんれい)上杉禅秀(うえすぎぜんしゅう)が叛乱(はんらん)を起こすと、鎌倉公方(くぼう)足利持氏(もちうじ)を助けてこれを鎮圧、幕府の安定に努めた。23年、将軍職を子の義量(よしかず)に譲ったが、義量は2年で病死、義持も28年（正長1）に死んだ。

　義持は後嗣(こうし)を定めず死んだため、斯波(しば)、細川(ほそかわ)、畠山(はたけやま)らの有力守護大名、および義満・義持の信任厚く、政務に深くかかわっていた醍醐(だいご)寺座主(ざす)三宝院(さんぽういん)門跡の満済らが後嗣について協議したが決められず、結局籤(くじ)によって義持の弟青蓮院義円(しょうれんいんぎえん)を選び、還俗(げんぞく)させて義教(よしのり)とし、これを擁立した。その就任早々、伊勢(いせ)国司北畠満雅(きたばたけみつまさ)が南朝後亀山(ごかめやま)法皇の子を擁して叛乱、それに続いて、代替り徳政を要求する大規模な正長(しょうちょう)の土一揆(つちいっき)が近江(おうみ)、山城(やましろ)、大和(やまと)からその周辺の国々にまでわたって広く蜂起(ほうき)し、翌29年（永享1）には播磨(はりま)の土一揆が守護方軍兵と戦うという危機的事態を迎えた。さらに鎌倉公方(くぼう)持氏の反幕行動も表面化した。義教は幕政面では管領をはじめとする有力守護大名の力を抑えるため、奉行人(ぶぎょうにん)制度を強化し、また守護大名家の庶子や国人を将軍直属の奉公衆(ほうこうしゅう)に編成して軍事力をも強化、将軍権力の専制性を高めた。また北関東や奥羽地方南部の諸将を京都扶持衆(ふちしゅう)として援護し、さらに陸奥篠川(むつささがわ)に配置された足利満直(みつただ)と結んで持氏への対抗力を強めた。

　本来幕府のもっとも重要な出先機関として東国支配の任を負っていた鎌倉公方は、守護の任免権などを除いて、大幅な権能を与えられていたが、そのためかえって早くから反幕的行動をとった。持氏の父満兼(みつかね)は応永(おうえい)の乱（1399）に際し大内義弘と呼応して反逆を企てた。このような鎌倉と京都の対立は、1438年持氏がその軍事行動を諫止(かんし)した関東管領上杉憲実(のりざね)を討とうとしたため、憲実が上野(こうずけ)に逃れ幕府に援助を求めることによって破局を迎えた。永享(えいきょう)の乱である。義教は駿河(するが)、信濃(しなの)、越後(えちご)の軍を動かし持氏を追い込め、翌年これを鎌倉で自殺させた。また1440年には、結城氏朝(ゆうきうじとも)ら持氏派の諸将が下総(しもうさ)結城の城に持氏の遺子安王・春王・永寿王を擁して大規模な反幕行動を起こしたが、これも上杉憲実および幕府が動員した大軍によって鎮圧された。

　ところが1441年（嘉吉1）播磨・備前(びぜん)・美作(みまさか)の守護赤松満祐(みつすけ)は、結城合戦勝利の祝宴と称して将軍義教を自邸に招き、その場でこれを暗殺した。満祐は、かねて義持・義教に圧迫を加えられていたうえ、義教が一色義貫(いっしきよしつら)らを追討したことから、いずれ自分も誅伐(ちゅうばつ)されると恐れて先回りしたらしい。満祐は領国播磨に下って抗戦したが、幕府は山名持豊(やまなもちとよ)らを送ってこれを倒した（嘉吉(かきつ)の乱）。

　しかしこれを契機として、室町幕府権力の弱体化が進行する。義教が殺されると、その直後に、義教に不興を被って河内(かわち)に下っていた畠山持国(もちくに)が兵を率いて入京し、管領細川持之(もちゆき)にとってかわろうとした。細川が一族で讃岐(さぬき)、阿波(あわ)、土佐(とさ)、淡路、備中(びっちゅう)、丹波(たんば)などの守護職(しき)を保持、強大な守護領国制を展開していたのに対し、畠山は能登(のと)、越中(えっちゅう)、河内、紀伊(きい)の守護職を保持したもののやや劣勢で、かねてから幕政の主導権を取り戻そうとしていたのである（翌年持之にかわり管領となる）。持国は将軍代替りによる徳政一揆の蜂起を巧みにとらえ、一揆の圧力を利用しつつ、自己の立場を有利にした。このとき幕府は初め山城一国に適用する徳政令を発布したが、翌月には「天下一同」徳政令を出さなくてはならなかった（嘉吉の徳政令）。

　義教の横死によって8歳の子義勝(よしかつ)が擁立されたが、2年後病死したため、その弟義成(よししげ)（のち義政(よしまさ)と改める）が継いだ。義政も年少のため義教の室日野重子(ひのしげこ)が後見として強い発言力をもち、守護勢力を抑えようとした。この間、足利持氏の遺子永寿王を公方として鎌倉に戻し、元服して成氏(しげうじ)と名のらせたが、成氏もまた反幕府に走り、下総古河(こが)に拠(よ)って古河公方とよばれた。そのため義政は、出家していた弟を還俗させて政知(まさとも)とし、これを東下させたものの、伊豆韮山(にらやま)の堀越(ほりこし)にとどまり鎌倉に入れず、堀越公方とよばれた。またこのころは、徳政を要求する土一揆がほとんど毎年のように蜂起した。これに対し、幕府は分一銭(ぶいちせん)と称して、債務者が債務額の10分の1もしくは5分の1を納めれば徳政を認めるとしたり、逆に債権者が分一銭を納めれば徳政をやめる徳政禁制令を発し、財政不足を補填(ほてん)した。義政は浪費家で「一代九度の晴の儀」と評されたように、儀式、観劇（猿楽(さるがく)）、観桜、寺社めぐりなど豪華な遊楽にふけり、1461年（寛正2）の未曽有(みぞう)の大飢饉(ききん)・大量餓死のなかでもいっこうに省みようとせず、たまりかねた後花園(ごはなぞの)天皇がこれを詩に託していさめるということさえあった。

　義満以来、守護大名の統制手段として、大名家の惣領(そうりょう)決定に将軍が介入することが行われだし、とくに義教・義政の介入はたびたびで、それが大名家の内訌(ないこう)を招いた。畠山持国の後継をめぐる養子政長(まさなが)と実子義就(よしなり)の争いも、義政の介入によってかえって激化した。また、細川勝元(かつもと)が山名持豊(もちとよ)を牽制(けんせい)するために赤松政則(まさのり)に赤松家を再興させようと考え、義政がそれを支持したため、細川対山名の対立も激化した。これに将軍家の継嗣として義政が弟義視(よしみ)を選んだあと、夫人日野富子(とみこ)が義尚(よしひさ)を生んだことから、曲折はあったものの、結局、義政・義尚・細川勝元・畠山政長、対、義視・山名持豊・畠山義就という形で東西両軍に分かれ、さらに斯波家なども分裂し、多数の守護大名・国人がこれに加わる応仁・文明の乱となった。

　1467年（応仁1）から77年（文明9）に至る応仁の乱は、京都を焼け野原に化すとともに、地方では守護代・国人が残存する荘園(しょうえん)を最後的に侵食し、また下剋上(げこくじょう)によって守護を倒し、戦国大名への道を歩みだした。大乱終結後数年を経ず、義政は東山(ひがしやま)山荘の造営を開始し、ここに移った。日野富子は夫との不和から別に住んで京都七口(ななくち)関からの関銭徴収を強化し、米投機、金銭貸付などに力を入れた。この間、なお戦いを続ける畠山義就・政長に対し、義政・富子が適切な対応を欠いたことから、1485年には山城国一揆が蜂起して両軍を撤退させ、以後南山城地方に10年余にわたる国一揆の自治が実現した。この事件は応仁・文明の乱によって失墜した幕府の権威をいっそう傷つけたもので、この直後から、加賀の一向(いっこう)一揆蜂起による守護富樫政親(とがしまさちか)の自殺、東方における伊勢長氏(いせながうじ)（北条早雲(ほうじょうそううん)）の伊豆韮山(にらやま)奪取などの戦国期入りを象徴する事件が続く。義政の子義尚は1487年（長享1）将軍権威の回復を目ざして近江守護六角高頼(ろっかくたかより)追討の軍を起こしたが、若くして暴飲不節制だったため陣中に死に、ともかくも将軍が幕府の中心にたつ時代はここに終わった。将軍はこれ以後なお1世紀近くも存続するが、細川政元(まさもと)以下それぞれの時期の中央有力者に擁立され、ときには翻弄(ほんろう)され、あるいは殺されることもありながら、形ばかり命脈を保ったのである。

［永原慶二］

経済と社会

室町時代は経済的には発展の顕著な時期である。農業では、用排水技術・肥培技術の進歩と品種の改良・多様化などによって耕地の安定と集約的利用が進んだ。土地生産力の上昇の半面、荘園領主権の弱化から、農民層の手元に残される剰余部分を加地子(かじし)として売買することが行われ、加地子収取権を集積する加地子名主(みょうしゅ)層が成長した。加地子名主層は「百姓」身分に属する有力農民で、惣(そう)とよぶ村落共同体結合の指導層となり、さらに惣村の地域連合を発展させ、自治的権利を強めるとともに、しばしば荘園領主に対する年貢・夫役(ぶやく)の減免を求める闘争や、幕府に対し徳政令を求める土一揆の先頭にたった。

　そうした生産力の向上と農民闘争によって、農民の手によって販売される農産物や農産加工品の量が増し、とくに苧麻(ちょま)、荏胡麻(えごま)などをはじめとする農産物・農産加工品の商品化が進んだ。またそれに伴い定期市(いち)が各地に発生し、その主要なものは町場化した。敦賀(つるが)、小浜(おばま)、大津、坂本、淀(よど)、尼崎(あまがさき)、兵庫、堺(さかい)など京都・奈良の外港的性格をもつ港津、また博多、尾道(おのみち)、安濃津(あのつ)、大湊(おおみなと)、品川、三国湊(みくにみなと)、蒲原津(かんばらのつ)なども、列島沿岸航路の発展によって都市的繁栄を遂げた。農村内部における社会分業は、鍛冶(かじ)、紺染め、番匠(ばんしょう)などを主とするにとどまるが、製塩、窯業、製紙、製材など地域の条件に即した特産物生産は各地で進んだ。

　中央都市京都は、伝統的な首都という性格に加え、幕府の開設、守護在京制、五山禅院の相次ぐ創建等の事情から人口増加が著しく、全国各地から送り込まれてくる物産のほか、織物、工芸品、焼物、刀剣武具などをはじめとする高級商品の生産が盛んで、多くの職人を分化発展させた。また洛中(らくちゅう)洛外の酒屋（醸造業者）は少なくとも300を超え、多くは土倉という保管業・金融業を兼営した。土倉は第三者からも合銭(ごうせん)とよぶ投資資金を多額に預ったが、庶民よりもむしろ年貢米・荘園支配権を担保としてとれる公家・武家に貸し付けた。室町時代の経済面における特徴の一つは、貨幣流通が急激に発展し、地方の年貢物も和市(わし)とよぶ取引相場によって現地で換算され、銭で納められるようになったこと、中央支配層の経済が貨幣経済化することによって金融関係、為替(かわせ)取引など信用経済が発展したことがあげられる。ただ見逃せない事実として、それら都市的・経済的諸機能の発展および伝統的な穢(けが)れ観念とかかわって、都市の清掃や道つくり、屍牛馬(しぎゅうば)処理などの労働に従事する人々や下級の各種芸能を業とした人々が卑賤(ひせん)視されたことがある。散所(さんじょ)、河原者(かわらもの)、唱門師(しょうもんし)などはその主要なものである。

　この間、室町時代を通じて、荘園制の解体がますます進んだ。南北朝時代以来、本所(ほんじょ)領とよばれる武家側地頭(じとう)設置の荘園では半済(はんぜい)が行われ分割が進んだ。それを免れた寺社本所一円地でも請負代官制の一般化によって、荘園領主が直接支配力を現地に及ぼすことは不可能になり、一定の年貢を受け取るだけのケースが多くなった。公領は多く守護領に転化した。しかも応仁・文明の乱によって、残存していた荘園の大半も地方領主の手によって侵食され、中央領主の権利は不知行(ちぎょう)状態に陥った。これにかわって守護領国制と国人の領域支配が進行し、土地の領有形態は荘園制的「職(しき)」の領有から一円的な領域支配へと転換していった。

［永原慶二］

国際関係

この時代の外交・国際関係は、1368年に朱元璋(しゅげんしょう)が明(みん)を建国し太祖洪武帝(こうぶてい)となることによって新しい局面に入った。すなわち、明帝は周辺諸国家に対し招撫(しょうぶ)入貢を促すための使者を送ったが、その一環として日本にも69年（正平24・応安2）明使がきて、当時九州に勢力をもっていた南朝側の懐良(かねよし)親王に倭寇(わこう)鎮圧と入貢を求めた。このころ朝鮮半島から中国沿岸にかけての倭寇が活発だったため、明も高麗(こうらい)もその抑止を強く求めていたのである。72年（文中1・応安5）明使がふたたび博多に来着、今度は幕府に国書を呈した。義満は使者を送ったが臣礼をとらなかったため拒否された。その後今川了俊(いまがわりょうしゅん)は倭寇が捕らえてきた民衆を高麗に返送するなど、独自の動きをとったため、義満は懐良・了俊の外交行動を抑え、外交権の独占を急がなくてはならなかった。また明が皇帝に臣従し冊封(さくほう)を奉じた場合のみこれを受け付け、商人レベルの交易に対しては海禁政策をとっていることを知ったため、義満は国内統合が一段落した1401年（応永8）明帝に対し臣礼をとって使者を送った。04年には明側からも永楽帝の勘合と「日本国王之印」が届けられ、以後いわゆる勘合貿易が行われるようになった。貿易品としては日本からは硫黄(いおう)、刀剣、扇などを出し、明からは銭貨、生糸、薬種などを入れた。また朝鮮半島でも、倭寇鎮圧にも力を発揮した李成桂(りせいけい)が1392年に高麗を倒して李朝を開いたのに応じ、義満は使者を送って国交を開いたが、朝鮮は明とは違って、互いの間に上下関係はなかった。1419年、朝鮮は対馬(つしま)を倭寇の根拠地とみて襲撃することがあったが、まもなく誤解に基づくことを認識し、以後、対馬の宗(そう)氏や大内、小早川(こばやかわ)など西国の守護・国人とも個別に通交関係をもった。

　このころ琉球(りゅうきゅう)ではしだいに統合が進み、中山(ちゅうざん)・南山(なんざん)・北山(ほくざん)の三勢力が形成されていたが、1429年（永享1）中山の尚巴志(しょうはし)が北山、南山を倒して全島の統一に成功し、「日域を以(もっ)て唇歯(しんし)、大明を以て輔車(ほしゃ)」という両属関係を保った。同時にその商人は広く南海方面にまで進出し、日明間の中継貿易に活躍した。日本では対明勘合貿易は義持の代で一時中止、義教の代に復活したが、遣使の回数は概して少なかった。そのうえ16世紀後半にはその主導権が大内、細川などの大名の手に移っていったのに対し、琉球の場合は遣使回数もはるかに多かった。

［永原慶二］

宗教・文化

宗教の面では、伝統的に公家と結び付いてきた南都北嶺(なんとほくれい)勢力を抑えるという意味もあって、南禅(なんぜん)・天竜・建仁(けんにん)・東福(とうふく)・万寿(まんじゅ)寺の京都五山（相国(しょうこく)寺の創建により南禅寺は五山の上とされた）に幕府の特別な保護が加えられ、多くの所領が寄進された。五山禅僧は詩文・漢籍に通じ（五山文学）、幕府と結び付いて政治・外交にも関与する一方、幕府も僧録制度を設けて、禅院・禅僧の管轄を強化した。春屋妙葩(しゅんおくみょうは)が初めて僧録に任じ、以後代々相国寺の鹿苑院(ろくおんいん)住持がこれを兼ねる習わしとなった。

　五山禅院が力をもつようになると、真言(しんごん)、天台宗などの地方寺院も禅宗に改宗するものが続き、禅宗は地方に大きく発展した。他方、民衆の間では時宗が広い支持を集めたが、室町中期に蓮如(れんにょ)が出て、近江、越前(えちぜん)などで布教したことから、応仁以降になると、浄土真宗（一向宗）が北陸・東海地方などを中心に民衆の間に広まり、その門徒はしばしば一向一揆を起こすようになった。

　文化の面では、建築、庭園、水墨画などに禅風が強い影響をもたらした。これは北山・東山文化の諸面にうかがうことができる。龍安寺(りょうあんじ)の庭園に代表される枯山水は、簡素で象徴性に富み、その代表的なものの一つである。しかし、室町時代の文化のもう一つの重要な特徴は、鎌倉時代までと違って文化が宗教を離れ、生活文化的傾向を強めてきたことである。この時代に大流行した田楽(でんがく)や猿楽(さるがく)の能は、もともと神事として演ぜられたものであるが、とくに猿楽は、観阿弥(かんあみ)・世阿弥(ぜあみ)以降しだいに独立的な演劇として発達した。また猿楽の能の合間に演ぜられる狂言は機知と風刺に富んだ娯楽劇となった。卑賤(ひせん)の芸能といわれる各種の下級芸能も、発生的には宗教と無縁でないが、みな娯楽性を強めるようになった。また書院造の建築様式の発達と不可分の立花(りっか)、茶はいっそう端的な生活文化というべきものである。さらにこの時代には和風料理の基本型が確立し、衣服の面では従来は下着にほかならなかった小袖(こそで)が表着(おもてぎ)となり、女性の服装は総じて軽快で生活しやすい型を追求するようになった。

　これと並んで室町文化のもう一つの特徴というべきものは、文化の創造・享受の仕方の集団性ということである。南北朝時代以来盛んだった連歌(れんが)は多数の人々が寄合(よりあい)の席で自由に参加できるもので、二条河原落書(にじょうがわらのらくしょ)に「在々所々ノ歌連歌点者ニナラヌ人ソナキ」といわれるように自由で大衆的な方式で楽しまれた。勧進(かんじん)能の形をとった猿楽の上演も、賀茂川原に桟敷(さじき)を設け貴賤の別なく観覧できるという開放性をもっていた。さらに茶会にしても、しばしば闘茶という形で人々が茶の品種の当て比べをするといった集団遊戯性をもっていた。猿楽能、連歌、茶などはいずれも発展過程で芸術として洗練され高められてゆくが、その発生過程では集団性・大衆性を特徴としている。それらはこの時代の村落共同体・都市共同体である惣(そう)の寄合などを社会的基盤として形成されたものといえるであろう。

［永原慶二］

『京都市編『京都の歴史2・3』（1968、71・学芸書林）』▽『小川信著『足利一門守護発展史の研究』（1980・吉川弘文館）』▽『佐藤進一著『足利義満』（1980・平凡社）』▽『永原慶二著『中世内乱期の社会と民衆』（1977・吉川弘文館）』▽『永原慶二著『日本中世の社会と国家』（1982・日本放送出版協会）』▽『今谷明著『室町幕府解体過程の研究』（1985・岩波書店）』▽『今谷明著『守護領国支配機構の研究』（1986・法政大学出版局）』