Manufacture - Manufactur

Japanese: マニュファクチュア - まにゅふぁくちゅあ(英語表記)manufacture
Manufacture - Manufactur

Manufacture refers to the first capitalist industrial production form (management style) before the emergence of large-scale mechanized industry due to the Industrial Revolution, and is usually translated as factory-based handicraft industry. This word is composed of two words, manu (hand) and facture (production), but as a historical term it is used only for large-scale handicraft industries that employ a certain number of workers. In other words, manufacture refers to the first form of capitalist industrial production, in which several to several dozen workers are employed in a single workshop, and industrial production is carried out under a system of division of labor and collaboration, although based on handicraft techniques. However, when this word is used in everyday language today, rather than as a historical term, it simply means industry or manufacturing. Below, we will explain manufacture as a historical term.

[Tadaki Otsuka]

Formation process

In the Middle Ages, handicrafts were organized into guilds for each type of trade, and the production methods and number of apprentices were strictly controlled by the guild rules, so the free development of production was not possible. However, from the end of the Middle Ages to the beginning of the early modern period, the domestic commodity economy and overseas trade became active, and the demand for woolen textiles and other products increased. As a result, important handicrafts such as the wool industry escaped the control of the urban guilds and spread to rural areas, where they developed freely in the form of rural industries, and eventually the control of the guilds began to loosen. These handicrafts were still simple family-scale cottage industries, or were organized by merchants under a wholesale system, but as the disintegration of craftsmen and farmers progressed, capitalist managers and the handicraft workers employed by them came into being, and manufactures were formed.

When manufacturing was formed, various craftsmen were gathered in one workshop to produce products with complex processes and the division of labor was the main production method, while many craftsmen of one type were gathered to produce products with simple processes and the division of labor was the main production method. In either case, a new production form of collaboration based on the division of labor was eventually adopted. This organization of labor significantly increased labor productivity in manufacturing compared to traditional cottage industries. Therefore, manufacturing gradually became dominant in fields such as textile and metal industries, and in the most industrialized country, England, the period from the middle of the 16th century to the 1860s (the eve of the Industrial Revolution) is called the original manufacturing era, and manufacturing also became popular in France and Germany a little later. However, since manufacturing was based on manual labor techniques, it did not have a decisive advantage over other forms of production, and not only did it allow cottage industries to continue to exist on a large scale, but, as will be described below, it often emerged in complex ways intertwined with the wholesale system.

[Tadaki Otsuka]

Form of existence

In the case of England, where manufacturing developed most typically, in Yorkshire at the end of the 16th century, to produce four bolts of broad woolen cloth per week, 60 workers were divided into the following proportions: 12 for wool sorting, dust removal, and dyeing, 30 for spinning and brushing, 12 for weaving and finishing, and 6 for miscellaneous tasks and transportation. However, these 60 workers were not all gathered in the same workshop, and a large part of the spinning and weaving processes was left to a wholesaler system. According to the estate inventory of John Pawson, a wealthy Yorkshire weaver from the late 16th century, his workshop was equipped with one dyeing pan, seven brushes, several spinning wheels, one loom, and 12 finishing tools, so there were a total of 20 workers working in his workshop: one dyer, seven brushers, several spinners, two weavers, and 12 finishers. At the same time, his estate includes a lot of wool advanced to the spinners and the weaving yarn produced there, so it is clear that a large part of the spinning (wool) process was entrusted to the wholesale advance system. Also, as we have seen, in his workshop, while there were many tools (number of workers) for the preparation process (brushes) and the finishing process, there was only one loom, so it is also clear that most of the weaving process was entrusted to the wholesale system.

Thus, the manufactures in the woollen textile industry in England at the end of the 16th century had a complex structure, with a central workshop in charge of the preparation and finishing processes at its center, combined with an external wholesaler system in charge of the spinning and weaving processes. In this case, it is possible to call only the central workshop employing around 20 workers a manufacture, but it would be more appropriate to call the entire organization, including the central workshop and the external wholesaler system, a manufacture.

The above-mentioned manufacturing model continued on a larger scale in England in the first half of the 18th century. For example, in the case of a large weaver named Thomas Griggs in Essex in the first half of the 18th century, the total number of workers employed was about 500, and these workers cooperated based on the division of labor in the processes of sorting, scouring, carding, spinning, and weaving. The preparation processes of sorting, scouring, and carding were carried out in a central workshop, where about 40 workers worked. However, the spinning and weaving processes were carried out outside, that is, in the homes of the spinners and weavers themselves, and in particular, the spinners, who numbered about 400, were dispersed over an area of ​​15 miles (about 24 kilometers). Eventually, the Industrial Revolution transformed this manufacturing model by mechanizing the spinning and weaving processes, and established large-scale mechanized industry.

In France and Germany, which began industrialization later than Britain, there were privileged manufacturers that were developed by the king through various privileges in order to produce goods for export, in addition to the spontaneous manufacturing that developed based on rural industry. However, these manufacturers were quite different in nature from the original spontaneous manufacturing.

[Tadaki Otsuka]

In Japan

In Japan, too, the formation of manufactures was seen in various fields from around the time of the opening of the ports at the end of the Edo period to the beginning of the Meiji era. For example, in the mid-19th century, in Utaotsu Village, Izumi (now Izumiotsu City, Osaka Prefecture), there was a cotton textile manufacture run by six family workers and 15 day laborers for weaving, and around the same time, in Okoshi Village, Owari (now Ichinomiya City, Aichi Prefecture), there was a cotton textile manufacture employing 10 servants. The existence of similar manufactures can also be seen in the silk-reeling industries in Kai, Shinano, and Musashi, silk textile industries in various places, including Nishijin in Kyoto, and sake brewing in Nada. However, in Japan, manufacturing had not yet developed to the extent that it could become the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, and therefore there is much disagreement over the idea that this period was the "manufacturing era in the strict sense."

[Tadaki Otsuka]

"Capital" by K. Marx, Volume 1, Chapter 12 (translated by Hasebe Fumio, Aoki Shoten / translated by Mukaizaka Itsuro, Iwanami Bunko / translated by Okazaki Jiro, Otsuki Shoten, Kokumin Bunko)""The Collected Works of Otsuka Hisao, Volume 5 (1969, Iwanami Shoten)""Research on the Establishment of Capitalism by Yaguchi Kojiro (1952, Yuhikaku)""Historical Analysis of the British Industrial Revolution by Yamanouchi Yasushi (1966, Aoki Shoten)"

[Reference] | Machinery Manufacturing | Privileged Manufacturing

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

マニュファクチュアは、産業革命によって機械制大工業が出現する以前の、最初の資本主義的な工業の生産形態(経営様式)をさし、通例、工場制手工業と訳される。このことばは、manu(手)とfacture(製造)という2語からなるが、歴史的な用語としては、ある程度の労働者を雇用する大規模な手工業に限って用いられる。すなわち、一つの作業場の内部に数名から数10名の労働者が雇用されて、手工業的な技術に基づきながらも、分業と協業の体制のもとで工業生産が行われるという、資本主義的な工業生産の最初の形態をマニュファクチュアと称する。なお、このような歴史的な用語としてではなく、今日の日常用語としてこのことばが使われる場合には、単に工業ないし製造業という意味である。以下では、歴史的な用語としてのマニュファクチュアについて説明する。

[遅塚忠躬]

形成過程

中世の手工業は各職種ごとにギルドに組織されており、そこでは生産方法や徒弟の数などがギルドの規約によって厳しく統制されていたので、生産の自由な発展は望めなかった。ところが、中世末期から近世初頭にかけて、国内の商品経済や海外貿易が活発になり、毛織物をはじめとする商品への需要が増大した。そのため、羊毛工業などの重要な手工業は、都市のギルドの統制を逃れて農村地帯に拡延し、農村工業という形をとって自由に発展し、やがてはギルドの統制も緩み始めた。これらの手工業は、なお単純な家族規模の家内工業であったり、それらを商人が問屋制度のもとに組織したものであったりしたが、やがて手工業者や農民の分解が進むと、資本主義的な経営者とそのもとに雇用される手工業労働者とが生まれ、マニュファクチュアが形成された。

 マニュファクチュアの形成に際しては、複雑な工程をもつ商品については各種の手工業者が一つの作業場に集められて分業を主体とする生産を行い、単純な工程の商品については一種類の手工業者多数が集められて協業を主体とする生産を行ったが、いずれの場合でも、やがて、分業に基づく協業という新しい生産形態が採用されるようになった。このような労働の組織化によって、マニュファクチュアにおいては、従来の家内工業におけるよりも労働生産性が著しく高められた。したがって、とくに繊維工業や金属工業などの分野ではしだいにマニュファクチュアが支配的になり、工業化の最先進国イギリスでは、16世紀の中葉から18世紀の60年代(産業革命前夜)までが、本来的なマニュファクチュア時代とよばれており、フランスやドイツでも、やや遅れてマニュファクチュアが盛んになった。ただし、マニュファクチュアは、なお手工業的な技術を基礎としていたので、他の生産形態に対して決定的に優位にたちうるものではなく、家内工業の広範な存続を許しただけではなく、次に述べるように、問屋制度と複雑に絡み合って現れる場合が多かった。

[遅塚忠躬]

存在形態

マニュファクチュアがもっとも典型的に発展したイギリスの場合、16世紀末のヨークシャーでは、広幅毛織物を毎週4反ずつ製造するために、60人の労働者の間に次のような比率の分業が行われていたという。選毛・除塵(じょじん)および染色に12人、紡毛および刷毛に30人、織布および仕上げに12人、雑役・運搬に6人。しかし、この60人の労働者のすべてが同一の作業場に集められていたわけではなく、紡毛工程と織布工程のかなりの部分は問屋制にゆだねられていた。同じく16世紀末のヨークシャーのジョン・ポーソンという富裕な織元(おりもと)の遺産目録によれば、彼の作業場には、染色鍋(なべ)1個、刷毛具7個、紡車若干、織機1台、仕上げ工具12個が備えられていたから、この作業場では、染色工1人、刷毛工7人、紡糸工若干人、織布工2人、仕上げ工12人、合計20数人の労働者が働いていたことになる。同時に、彼の遺産には、紡糸工に前貸しされた羊毛やそこでつくられた織糸がたくさん含まれているから、紡糸(紡毛)工程のかなりの部分は問屋制前貸しにゆだねられていたことが明らかである。また、彼の作業場では、先にみたように、準備工程(刷毛)と仕上げ工程との工具数(労働者数)が多いのに対して、織機が1台しかないので、織布工程の多くが問屋制にゆだねられていたこともまた明らかである。

 このように、16世紀末のイギリスの毛織物工業におけるマニュファクチュアは、主として準備工程と仕上げ工程とを担当する中心作業場を軸にして、その外部に紡糸および織布工程を担当する問屋制度を組み合わせるという、複雑な構造をもっていた。この場合、20数人程度の労働者を雇用する中心作業場だけをマニュファクチュアと称することもできるが、むしろ、中心作業場と外部の問屋制とをともに含めた組織の全体をマニュファクチュアと称するほうが妥当であろう。

 以上のようなマニュファクチュアのあり方は、18世紀前半のイギリスにおいてもさらに大規模な形で継続していた。すなわち、18世紀前半のエセックスのトマス・グリッグズという大規模な織元の場合、総雇用労働者数は約500人に上っており、これらの労働者が選毛・洗毛・梳毛(そもう)・紡糸・織布という諸工程において、分業に基づく協業を行っていた。そして選毛・洗毛・梳毛という準備工程は中心作業場で行われ、そこでは40数人の労働者が働いていた。だが、紡糸と織布の工程は、外部で、つまり紡糸工および織布工自身の家の中で行われており、とくに、約400人に上る紡糸工は周辺15マイル(約24キロメートル)の地域に分散していた。やがて、産業革命が、紡糸工程と織布工程とを機械化することによって、このようなマニュファクチュアのあり方を変革して機械制大工業を確立することになるのである。

 なお、イギリスよりも遅れて工業化を開始したフランスやドイツにおいては、農村工業を基盤にして自生的に形成されてくるマニュファクチュアとは別に、輸出向けの商品を生産するために国王がさまざまな特権を与えて育成した特権マニュファクチュアが存在したが、これは本来の自生的なマニュファクチュアとはかなり性格を異にしていた。

[遅塚忠躬]

日本の場合

日本においても、幕末開港前後から明治初年にかけて、さまざまな分野でマニュファクチュアの形成がみられた。たとえば、19世紀中葉に和泉(いずみ)の宇多大津村(現大阪府泉大津市)では、家族労働者6人と賃織日雇15人とで営まれる綿織物マニュファクチュアがあり、同じころ、尾張(おわり)の起(おこし)村(現愛知県一宮(いちのみや)市)でも10人の奉公人を雇う綿織物マニュファクチュアがあった。また、甲斐(かい)、信濃(しなの)、武蔵(むさし)などの製糸業や、京都の西陣(にしじん)をはじめとする各地の絹織物業や、灘(なだ)の酒造業などにおいても、ほぼ同様なマニュファクチュアの存在が認められている。だが、日本では、産業革命の母胎になりうるほどにはマニュファクチュアが発展しておらず、したがって、この時期を「厳密な意味でのマニュファクチュア時代」とする説には異論が多い。

[遅塚忠躬]

『K・マルクス著『資本論』「第1巻 第12章」(長谷部文雄訳・青木書店/向坂逸郎訳・岩波文庫/岡崎次郎訳・大月書店・国民文庫)』『『大塚久雄著作集 第5巻』(1969・岩波書店)』『矢口孝次郎著『資本主義成立期の研究』(1952・有斐閣)』『山之内靖著『イギリス産業革命の史的分析』(1966・青木書店)』

[参照項目] | 機械制大工業 | 特権マニュファクチュア

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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