Buddhist literature

Religion and literature overlap in that they both use words to question the meaning of human existence. Therefore, the Buddhist scriptures themselves, which are expressed using words that draw out the human imagination, can be considered Buddhist literature. The scriptures that Japanese people come into contact with are translations of Chinese texts, but many of them evoke literary emotions thanks to the expressive power of Chinese writing. The Lotus Sutra, which praises the workings of infinite life, the Contemplation Sutra, which appeals to the aesthetic imagination and describes the splendor of the Pure Land, the Avatamsaka Sutra, which describes the inner world of enlightenment filled with joy and light, and the Vimalakirti Sutra, which discusses emptiness through dialogue between the great merchant Vimalakirti and his disciples, are all sutras that can be considered literature in themselves, and are actually included in complete collections of literature. In addition, biographies of the Buddha, who traveled and meditated on his life's sufferings, and who tells of his life and past lives, such as the Sutra of Past and Present Causality, can also be counted as biographical literature, and stories about the deeds of devout believers are recognized as mainstream Buddhist literature under the name of Buddhist tales.

On the other hand, in premodern literary works, where Buddhist thought was deeply connected to the structure of human consciousness and Buddhist beliefs and customs were deeply connected to lifestyles and annual events, direct and indirect influences of Buddhism can be seen in many works. For this reason, general literary works that show influence from Buddhism are also considered to be Buddhist literature from a Buddhist perspective. From this standpoint, works such as "The Tale of Genji," "The Tale of the Heike," "Hojoki," "Tsurezuregusa," "Kaido-ki," Noh plays, and works by Basho and Chikamatsu can also be treated as Buddhist literature. However, the mainstream of Buddhist literature in Japan should be considered to be sayings that speak movingly of the new view of humanity brought about by Buddhism, and Buddhist teachings that testify to the truth of Buddhism that can be felt when one denies and sets aside egoism. These include "Ojoyoshu," "Yokokawa Hogo," "Ichimai Kishomon," "Tannisho," "Mattousho," "Shobogenzo," Nichiren's letters (Gosho), and Rennyo's "Ofumi." In addition, waka (Buddhist poetry), popular songs, and wasan (Japanese hymns) that use verse to praise the virtues of Buddha and Buddhists and express the joy of faith can also be considered authentic Buddhist literature. Representative examples include the Homonka (literature poems) in "Ryōjinhisho" and "Sanjō Wasan." In addition, there are many collections of Buddhist tales that include tales that explain the principle of karma, tales of the afterlife that tell of the rebirth of believers, and even the origins of religious ceremonies held at various temples and tales of the miraculous powers of various sutras and Buddhas. Representative works include "Nihon Ryōiki," "Nihon Ojo Gokurakuki," "Konjaku Monogatarishu," "Hōbutsushu," "Hosshinshu," "Kankyo no Tomo," "Senjūshō," and "Shasekishu."

Furthermore, Zen Buddhism, brought to Japan by immigrant and student monks from China during the Song Dynasty who were well versed in the arts and sciences, flourished in literary activity centered around official temples under the generous patronage of the shogunate and samurai, and gave rise to a field of highly conceptual Buddhist literature known as Gozan literature. If we accept that the mainstream of Buddhist literature is the expression of Buddhist thought in the form of Buddhist sermons, tales, songs, and poetry, then we can say that Japanese Buddhist literature came to an end in the Middle Ages. In the early modern period, although Buddhist beliefs and customs and stories of the miraculous powers of gods and Buddhas were sometimes incorporated as material or ideas for works, works that were underpinned by Buddhist thought no longer appeared.

In modern times, however, as ideas from Christianity and Western philosophy triggered a reevaluation of Buddhism, particularly Pure Land Buddhism and Zen, among intellectuals, Buddhism became universalized alongside Christianity and was incorporated into the subject matter of literature. Writers with ties to Buddhism, such as Takeda Taijun, Niwa Fumio, and Mizukami Tsutomu, began to create works that addressed human confusion and suffering surrounding sex and money, and the fate of humans as mortal beings, from the standpoint of Buddhist transcendental thought, and this was reborn as a new form of religious literature that questioned the meaning of human existence.

[Hiroyuki Ito]

"Kino Kazuyoshi and Miki Norito, eds., Classics of Buddhist Literature, Volumes 1 and 2 (Yuhikaku Shinsho)" " Umehara Takeshi, 'Thoughts on Hell' (Chuko Shinsho)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

宗教も文学も、ことばによって人間の存在の意味を問うという側面で重なり合う。それゆえ、人間的な想像力を引き出すことばを用いて表現されている仏教経典そのものを仏教文学とみることができる。日本人が接する経典は漢訳のものであるが、それらのなかには、漢語文の表現力に支えられて文学的な感動を誘うものが多い。無限の命の働きをたたえた『法華経(ほけきょう)』や、美的想像力に訴えて浄土の荘厳(しょうごん)を説く『観無量寿経(かんむりょうじゅきょう)』、喜びと光明にあふれる悟りの内景を説く『華厳(けごん)経』、大商人であった維摩詰(ゆいまきつ)と仏弟子との問答によって空(くう)を語り明かす『維摩経』などは、経それ自体を文学とみなすことができ、現に文学全集にも収められている。また、人生の苦悩に促されて遍歴と思索を重ねた仏陀(ぶっだ)の生涯や前生を語った仏伝、たとえば『過去現在因果経』なども伝記文学に数えることができ、篤信者の行業を語る話は仏教説話の名のもとに仏教文学の主流に認められている。

　また、一方では、仏教思想が人間の意識構造と深いかかわりをもち、仏教の信仰習俗が生活様式や年中行事と深いかかわりをもっていた前近代の文学作品には、仏教の直接的、間接的な影響が多々見受けられる。そこから、仏教の影響がみられる一般文学作品をも、仏教の立場から仏教文学とみることが行われている。そうした立場からは、『源氏物語』『平家物語』『方丈記』『徒然草(つれづれぐさ)』『海道記』、謡曲、芭蕉(ばしょう)や近松の作品なども仏教文学として扱われうる。しかし、日本における仏教文学の主流は、仏法によってもたらされた新しい人間観を感動を込めて語った語録や、我執を否定し去ったところに感得しうる仏法の真実を証言する法語にあるとみるべきである。『往生要集』『横川(よかわ)法語』『一枚起請文(いちまいきしょうもん)』『歎異抄(たんにしょう)』『末燈鈔(まっとうしょう)』『正法眼蔵(しょうぼうげんぞう)』、日蓮(にちれん)の書簡（御書(ごしょ)）、蓮如(れんにょ)の『御文(おふみ)』などがそれである。また、韻文によって仏や仏者の徳行をたたえ、信仰の喜びを表現した和歌（釈教歌(しゃっきょうか)）や歌謡、和讃(わさん)も本格的な仏教文学といえる。『梁塵秘抄(りょうじんひしょう)』の法文歌や『三帖和讃(さんじょうわさん)』が代表的なものである。そのほか、因果応報の理を説く説話や信仰者の往生を語った往生譚(たん)、さらには諸寺の法会(ほうえ)の縁起や諸経・諸仏の霊験(れいげん)譚を集めた仏教説話集が数多くみられ、『日本霊異記(にほんりょういき)』『日本往生極楽記』『今昔物語集』『宝物集(ほうぶつしゅう)』『発心集(ほっしんしゅう)』『閑居友(かんきょのとも)』『撰集抄(せんじゅうしょう)』『沙石集(しゃせきしゅう)』などが代表的な作品である。

　また、中国の宋(そう)代の学芸に通じた渡来僧や留学僧がもたらした禅宗は、幕府や武家の手厚い庇護(ひご)のもとに、官寺を中心とした文筆活動を盛行させ、五山(ござん)文学とよばれる観念性の強い仏教文学の一領域を形成した。このように、法語、説話、歌謡、詩文の形式で仏教思想を表現したものを仏教文学の主流と認めるなら、日本の仏教文学は中世をもって終わったとみてよい。近世に入ると、仏教の信仰習俗や神仏の霊験譚が、作品の素材や趣向として取り入れられることはあっても、仏教思想を支えとした作品はみられなくなった。

　ところが近代になると、キリスト教や西洋哲学の思想が契機となって、知識人の間に、仏教とくに浄土教と禅とが再評価されるようになると、仏教もキリスト教と並んで普遍化され、文学の主題に取り込まれるに至った。性や金銭にまつわる人間の迷いや苦悩、死すべき存在としての人間の運命を仏教の超越思想の立場からとらえた作品が、武田泰淳、丹羽文雄、水上勉などの仏門に縁をもつ作家によってつくられるようになり、人間存在の意味を問う新しい宗教文学として再生した。

［伊藤博之］

『紀野一義・三木紀人編『仏教文学の古典』上下（有斐閣新書）』▽『梅原猛著『地獄の思想』（中公新書）』

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