There are various opinions about the origin of Indian theatre, including those that see its origins in the Vedic scriptures, those that assume it was preceded by puppet shows and shadow plays, and those that assume the influence of Greek theatre, but all of these are merely speculations. The Natyashastra, India's oldest theatre theory book, contains the following mythological story about the origin of theatre: The gods, suffering under the corrupt world order, pleaded with Brahma to create entertainment that could be seen and heard and that even the lowest class of people, the Shudras, could enjoy. In response, Brahma created the Vedas, incorporating elements of recitation, singing, gestures and mood from each of the four Vedic scriptures (Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva), and Shiva and his wife Parvati contributed dance. Regardless of historical accuracy, this mythological story suggests that Indian theatre has long been inseparably linked to dance and music. [Kazuhiko Machida] Classical TheatreThe Natyashastra has great authority over later classical Sanskrit drama, regulating almost all aspects of drama, and knowledge of this canon was required for the creation and appreciation of plays. In particular, the theory of "rasa" (originally meaning "taste" and by extension mood), which places great importance on the dramatic psychological effect that acting in a broad sense (gestures, body language, emotions, lines, costumes) has on the audience, is worthy of special mention. The most basic and representative form of classical drama is called "nataka," which has content based on ancient tales and is regulated by the fact that the plot is structured into five stages from the beginning of the story to the fulfillment of the goal in a happy ending. Both simple prose and verse with elaborate rhetorical and metrical techniques are used for the language. Also, within the same play, those of high social status such as Brahmins, kings, generals, and queens would use the classical language of Sanskrit, while ordinary women, children, and men of low social status would use various types of Prakrit, which were slang terms. The oldest surviving Sanskrit drama is a Buddhist drama by Ashvaghosha (c. 100), unearthed as a fragmentary manuscript in Central Asia. Subsequent famous works that have been preserved in their entirety to this day include the love drama "Bāsavadattā of the Dream" by Bhasa (c. 300), the love drama "The Earthen Cart" by Shudraka (c. 350), and the political drama "Rākshasa and the Seal" by Visakadatta (c. 400). However, the greatest classical Sanskrit dramatist in both name and reality is Kalidasa (c. 400). His three love dramas "Shakuntala," "Vikrama and Urvashi," and "Malavika and Agnimitra" are well known. "Shakuntala" in particular is highly renowned, and was introduced to Europe in English and German translations from the end of the 18th century, where it is well known that Goethe praised it highly. After Kalidasa, many excellent works are known, such as Harshavardhana's "Ratnawari" in the 7th century, Bababhuti's "Continued Deeds of Rama" in the 8th century, Bhatta Narayana's "The Hairdressing", Murari's "The Descendant of the Matchless Ragu" in the 9th century, and Rajashekhara's "Ramayana for Children" in the 10th century. However, Sanskrit plays after that were bound by detailed rules of theatrical theory and were of a poor quality, and they declined along with the invasion and rule of India by Muslims. From then on, drama disappeared from the surface of Indian literary history until the beginning of modern drama in the 19th century. [Kazuhiko Machida] Folk TheatreAmong the folk theatre traditions that have continued to this day, mainly in North India, are the famous Rama plays and Krishna plays. They are strongly religious in tone, based on the myths surrounding the most popular Hindu gods, respectively, and are said to have originated around the 16th century, when worship of Rama and worship of Krishna became popular. In addition, popular comedies of unknown origin known as "Nautanki" or "Swaang," characterized by coquettish gestures and songs set to the beat of drums, had already spread throughout North India in the 18th century. [Kazuhiko Machida] Modern TheatreAround the time of the Battle of Plassey in 1757, which marked a turning point in Britain's colonization of India, theatres began to be built, mainly by the British, in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Bombay (now Mumbai). However, the actual history of modern theatre in India began in the mid-19th century in the Bengali-speaking region, centered around Calcutta, which was early in its contact with and absorption of British culture, and, a little later, in the Hindi-speaking region, centered around Benares (Varanasi). In both cases, theatre started out as amateur theatre in the salon-like atmosphere of the wealthy intellectual class. At first, translations and adaptations of English plays by artists such as Shakespeare and classical Sanskrit plays by artists such as Kalidasa were the norm. However, apart from the worship of British culture, theater began to play an enlightening role ahead of other literary genres such as poetry and novels, reflecting the awakening of national consciousness that was beginning to emerge among the Indian intellectual class at the time and doubts about the social contradictions bound by convention. The representative playwright of this period was Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850-85), who was instrumental in establishing Hindi prose, currently the official language of India. In addition to translating plays from English, Sanskrit, and Bengali, he also created comedic plays that satirized the society of his time, such as "City of Darkness" and "Killing is not killing as prescribed by the Vedas," as well as the allegorical play "The Misery of India," and he actively performed them with his collaborators. At around the same time, commercial theater troupes were established by Parsis in Bombay, performing a type of opera around the country and enjoying immense popularity among the masses. These commercial theaters were absorbed into the film industry, which began to flourish in the early 20th century. In the Bengali-speaking world, theater developed smoothly, centered around the family of Tagore (1861-1941), but in the Hindi-speaking world, it stagnated somewhat until the time of Jayeshankar Prasad (1889-1937). Prasad's representative works include the historical dramas Skandagupta and Chandragupta, which advocate the awakening and elevation of historical, ethnic and cultural consciousness, and the controversial drama Durwaswamini. Since the first radio drama was broadcast on the National Broadcasting System in 1936, theater has continued to develop to this day, along with film, the greatest form of entertainment. After independence, the development of theater in India was remarkable, and in 1953 the National Academy of Music and Drama was established, followed in 1959 by its affiliate, the National School of Dramatic Art. These activities promote the training of theater professionals and the study of theater in Indian languages, including classical drama. [Kazuhiko Machida] Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
インド演劇の起源については、ベーダ聖典にその萌芽(ほうが)を認めるもの、人形劇や影絵劇の先行を前提とするもの、ギリシア演劇の影響を想定するものなどの意見があるが、いずれも推測の域を出ない。インド最古の演劇理論書『ナーティヤ・シャーストラ』には、演劇の起源について次のような神話的物語が記されている。堕落した世界秩序に苦しんだ神々は、見ること聞くことができ最下層民のシュードラも楽しめる娯楽の創造を梵天(ぼんてん)に懇請した。これに応じて、梵天は四つのベーダ聖典(リグ、サーマ、ヤジュル、アタルバ)からそれぞれ暗唱、唱歌、しぐさ、情調という要素を取り入れた演劇ベーダを創作し、シバ神とその神妃パールバティーは舞踏を寄与した。この神話的物語は、史実性は別にして、インド演劇が古くから舞踏と音楽と不可分の関係にあったことを示唆している。 [町田和彦] 古典演劇『ナーティヤ・シャーストラ』は、後世の古典サンスクリット演劇に対し絶大な権威をもち、およそ演劇に関するほとんどすべての事柄にわたって規定し、戯曲の創作と鑑賞にはこの規範の知識が要求された。とくに、広義の演技(しぐさ、身ぶり、情緒、台詞(せりふ)、扮装(ふんそう))が観客に及ぼす劇的心理効果を最重要視した「ラサ」(原義は「味」、転じて情調)の理論は特筆に値する。古典戯曲の種類でもっとも基本的かつ代表的な形式は「ナータカ」とよばれ、古来の説話に基づいた内容をもち、話の発端からハッピー・エンドである目的成就までの5段階に区分できる筋の構成をもつことなどが規定されている。言語は簡素な散文と、修辞・韻律技巧を凝らした韻文の両方が用いられた。また同一戯曲のなかで、バラモン、王、将軍、王妃などの社会的身分の高い者は古典語であるサンスクリットを、一般の婦人、子供、社会的身分の低い男子は俗語である各種プラークリットをと使い分けられていた。 現存する最古のサンスクリット劇は、写本断片として中央アジアから出土したアシュバゴーシャ(100ころ)の仏教劇である。以降の完全な姿として今日まで伝わる著名な作品は、バーサ(300ころ)の恋愛劇『夢のバーサバダッター』、シュードラカ(350ころ)の恋愛劇『土の小車』、ビシャーカダッタ(400ころ)の政治劇『ラークシャサと印章』と続く。しかし名実ともに古典サンスクリット劇作家の最高峰はカーリダーサ(400ころ)である。彼の三つの恋愛劇『シャクンタラー』『ビクラマとウルワシー』『マーラビカとアグニミトラ』が知られている。とくに『シャクンタラー』の名声は高く、18世紀末から英訳や独訳によりヨーロッパに紹介され、ゲーテが絶賛したことは有名である。カーリダーサ以後は、7世紀のハルシャバルダナの『ラトナーワリー』、8世紀のババブーティの『続ラーマの所行』、バッタ・ナーラーヤナの『結髪』、9世紀のムラーリの『たぐいなきラグの後裔(こうえい)』、10世紀のラージャシェーカラの『幼童のためのラーマーヤナ』など数々の佳作が知られている。しかしその後のサンスクリット劇は、演劇論の細則に縛られて質的にはみるべきものがなく、イスラム教徒のインド侵入と支配と相まって衰退していく。以後19世紀の近代演劇の始まりまで、演劇はインド文学史の表面から姿を消す。 [町田和彦] 民俗演劇民俗演劇として北インドを中心に今日まで伝統が続いているものに、有名なラーマ劇とクリシュナ劇がある。それぞれヒンドゥー教のもっともポピュラーな神にまつわる神話に題材をとった宗教的色彩の強いもので、起源はラーマ信仰、クリシュナ信仰が盛んになった16世紀ごろとされる。また起源の不明な「ナウタンキー」、あるいは「スワーング」とよばれる、太鼓の調子にあわせたコケティッシュな身ぶりや歌が特徴の大衆笑劇がすでに18世紀には全北インドで広まっていた。 [町田和彦] 近代演劇イギリスがインドの植民地化を進める転機となった1757年のプラッシーの戦いの前後から、おもにイギリス人によりカルカッタ(現コルカタ)、ボンベイ(現ムンバイ)に劇場が建てられ始めた。しかしインドの実質的な近代演劇史は、19世紀の中葉、イギリス文化の接触・摂取が早かったカルカッタを中心とするベンガル語圏、やや遅れてベナレス(ワーラーナシ)を中心とするヒンディー語圏で始まる。いずれも富裕な知識階級のサロン的雰囲気のなかでアマチュア演劇として出発した。最初はシェークスピアなどの英語劇やカーリダーサなどの古典サンスクリット劇の翻訳・翻案が主流であった。 しかしイギリス文化の崇拝とは別に、当時のインド知識階級の間で芽生えつつあった民族意識の覚醒(かくせい)、因習に縛られた社会矛盾への疑問を反映して、演劇は詩や小説など他の文学ジャンルに先駆けて啓蒙(けいもう)的役割を果たし始めた。現在インドの公用語であるヒンディー語の散文確立の功績者であり、この時期の代表的劇作家はバーラテンドゥ・ハリシュチャンドラ(1850―85)である。彼は英語、サンスクリット、ベンガル語からの翻訳劇のほかに、同時代の社会を揶揄(やゆ)した笑劇『暗闇(くらやみ)の町』『ベーダ聖典に規定された殺生は殺生にあらず』、寓話(ぐうわ)劇『インドの惨状』などを創作し、協力者とともに積極的な上演活動もした。 またほぼ同時期にボンベイのパールシー教徒により設立された娯楽に徹した商業演劇団は、各地で一種のオペラ劇を巡業し、大衆の絶大な人気を博していた。これらの商業演劇は、20世紀の初期から盛んになり始めた映画産業に吸収されていった。 ベンガル語圏ではタゴール(1861―1941)一族を中心に演劇の順調な発展が進んだが、ヒンディー語圏ではジャエシャンカル・プラサード(1889―1937)までやや停滞した。プラサードの代表作は、歴史、民族、文化意識の覚醒や高揚をうたった史劇『スカンダグプタ』『チャンドラグプタ』、問題劇『ドゥルワスワーミニー』などがある。なお、1936年に最初のラジオドラマがインド国営放送で放送されて以来、最大の娯楽である映画とともに今日まで発展を続けている。独立後のインドの演劇の発展は目覚ましく、53年には国立音楽演劇アカデミーが、59年にはその付属機関国立演劇学校が設立され、演劇関係者の育成促進とともに、古典劇を含むインド諸言語の演劇の研究促進にあたっている。 [町田和彦] 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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