Indus Valley Civilization

Japanese: インダス文明 - いんだすぶんめい

An ancient Indian civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin around 2000 B.C. Its existence came to light with the discovery and excavation of the Harappa ruins by D. R. Sahani and others, and the Mohenjo-Daro ruins by R. D. Banerjee and others, and excavations have been continuing in various places since 1921.

[Masaaki Konishi]

Age and distribution

In the past, the Indus Valley Civilization was thought to have been around 2500-1500 BCE, but in recent years, the idea that it reached its peak around 2350-1800 BCE, with periods of growth and decline spanning several hundred years, has been gaining ground. The collection of remains that constitute the material foundation of the Indus Valley Civilization is called the Harappan culture, and today, approximately 300 ruins, large and small, have been identified that have unearthed Harappan remains, regardless of whether they show signs of being an urban civilization or not. Its extent is much wider than that of other ancient civilizations, and it extends to Alamgirpur, northwest of Delhi, in the east, Sotkagen Dor, near the Iranian border on the Arabian Sea coast, Manda in Jammu, in the north, and Marwan on the Gulf of Cambay in the south. In other words, the area covers a distance of 1,600 km from east to west and 1,400 km from north to south; however, in fact, they are hardly found in the Baluchistan Mountains in the west or the Thar Desert in the east, and it should be noted that more than 90% of these 300 or so ruins are merely small village ruins.

[Masaaki Konishi]

Indicator Relic

The remains of the Harappan culture are extremely diverse. First, Harappan pottery is made on a potter's wheel and covered with a red veneer of clay, on which geometric designs such as cross circles, fish scales, lattices, checkerboards, wavy patterns, and bands are painted with black pigment, as well as plant designs such as dates, Indian fig trees, and rosettes, and animal designs such as peacocks, deer, and fish. The shapes of the vessels are many, including large storage jars, water jars, pots, bowls, bowls, high-sided vessels, beakers, and pointed-bottom goblets, and the more practical the vessels are, the more undecorated they tend to be. Among the undecorated pottery, there is one distinctive type that is thought to be a multi-hole vessel, either a fire bucket or a strainer, with many small holes carved into one side of its high, round-bottomed, upright vessel wall. Other clay products include a wide variety of human and animal figurines, including what appears to be a mother goddess figure, toys (gangu) modeled after cars, and small ceramic plates (terracotta cakes) of unknown use. These are crude unglazed ceramic plates with rounded corners and sides of 6 to 10 centimeters, about 3 centimeters thick. They are usually plain and uncolored, but one excavated from the Kalibangan site shows line drawings depicting the sacrifice of a goat (nails), and this example may have been used in some kind of ritual.

Stone tools stand out as being highly technical and specialized, and copper products do not appear to have been widely used, which indicates that this culture was characterized by both metal and stone. There are few copper weapons, but some magnificent bronze human figures were cast by the dewaxing method. There are also some human figures made of sandstone, limestone, and steatite. Steatite seals have been excavated in urban areas, and these are usually small, thin pieces with a square shape of 2 to 5 centimeters. On the front side, there are mythological motifs such as animals such as zebu, elephant, antelope, rhinoceros, and tiger, as well as unicorns, demigods, and humans that are thought to represent gods, all of which are carefully engraved intaglio. Indus script is carved at the top, but its purpose is unknown as it has not been deciphered. Since there is a knob with a hole on the back for threading a string through, it may have been used as a talisman, but there are also many examples of it being used for clay seals. Many other accessories such as beads have also been excavated, and those made of carnelian in particular were probably important items that were exported as far as Mesopotamia. The measurements and weights are also standardized to a certain standard, which is noteworthy along with the thorough planning seen in the city plan.

[Masaaki Konishi]

Cityscape

The Indus civilization had two major cities, Harappa in the Punjab region in the middle Indus River basin, and Mohenjo-daro in Sindh in the lower Indus River basin, as well as several smaller regional cities such as Chanukh-daro in Sindh, Surkotada and Lothal in the Kutch-Gujarat region, and Kalibangan in northern Rajasthan. It is unclear what role each of these cities played in the structure of the civilization, but there is no doubt that Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were the political and economic centers. However, the role of port cities such as Lothal, which traded not only domestically but also as far away as Mesopotamia, using Bahrain Island off the coast of Kuwait as a relay point, is also clear. A large boat dock measuring 219 meters long and 37 meters wide was excavated here. Each city also had granaries that could store more than the amount of food commensurate with their population, and played a role similar to that of a national treasury or a regional bank. However, the state of the political and economic system at that time, such as how these surplus products were accumulated within the vast territory, is not entirely clear, because no royal palaces, royal tombs, or large temples that would have symbolized power have yet been discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization.

On the other hand, the Indus Valley Civilization is notable for its extremely meticulously calculated urban planning, and shows a well-ordered plan. In general, the cities were divided into a fortified area and an urban area, and the fort was often located on the west side of the city. In such cases, the fort was built on a high platform and surrounded by a separate wall from the urban area, or was surrounded by a wall together with the urban area and separated from the urban area by a partition wall. Cemeteries were also usually located outside the city walls.

Meanwhile, the city was divided into five or six main streets running north-south, east-west, and further divided into a grid pattern by small streets that crossed each other at right angles. The houses, built close together, had high walls and small entrances, but inside there was a courtyard with small rooms lined up around it and also connected to the second floor. There was often a well in the courtyard, where a kitchen and laundry room were also located. Wastewater from each house was led to a cesspit through clay pipes in the wall, or sometimes through drainage holes that were inclined like dustchutes, and then to a brick sewer that served as an underground conduit. There were manholes in the main sewer on the main street, and it seems that it was regularly cleaned. There were also buildings that seemed to be guard huts on every corner of the city, and craftsmen's workshops and shops lined the main streets, but there was no square where citizens could gather.

[Masaaki Konishi]

The origins of civilization

There are many unknowns about how the Indus civilization emerged, just as there are about its structure. In the past, influences from Mesopotamia or Iran were considered important, but it cannot be denied that some influences came from the west. However, it is certain that the Indus River basin itself was stirring toward a unique civilization, and in this respect, the development of the Kot Diji culture is noteworthy. The distribution of this culture is seen throughout the southern region, with Kot Diji in Sindh as the standard site, and it is thought to have spread through the lower Harappa ruins and Jalilpur, and to the ruins of Sarai Kohla and Jhang near Taxila in the north. The Soti culture of northern Rajasthan, which is related to it but also has somewhat different elements, should also be noted.

Indeed, from around 3000 BCE, unique cultures strongly influenced by those of the Iranian highlands had been developing in the Baluchistan mountains to the west. Areas slightly further north, such as Pisin, Queta and Zhob, were developed relatively early, followed by cultures in the south such as Amri, Nar and Togaw. However, around 2500-2400 BCE, the overland trade routes in the Iranian highlands declined, and the Kurri culture along the Makran coast flourished instead. By this time, the Indus civilization had already been established, and it had been in contact with civilizations further west, mainly via sea routes. Therefore, it is believed that the direct cultural foundations that formed the Indus civilization were laid in the Indus plain itself.

[Masaaki Konishi]

Decline of civilization and cultural inheritance

There is much debate about how the Indus Valley Civilization declined. In the past, some people suggested that the Indus Valley Civilization was destroyed by the Aryan peoples who invaded India, based on descriptions in later religious hymns such as the Rig-Veda. However, there is no archaeological evidence to support this, and the civilization was already showing signs of collapse, probably due to internal factors, 300 to 400 years before the Aryan peoples invaded, which is thought to have been around 1500 BCE. The civilization entered a period of decline around 1800 BCE or at the latest around 1750 BCE, but the reasons and aspects of this decline are thought to have differed greatly from region to region. In other words, the reason could never have been a single one, and various factors were likely competing with each other in a complex manner. For example, in addition to the weakening of the national government, the interruption of trade with Mesopotamia, and the destruction of the environment, such as drying out and salinity, in the Sindh region and elsewhere there was flooding related to the uplift of the Makran coast, and in the Punjab and northern Rajasthan there were changes in the course of rivers that were also important trade routes, all of which dealt a blow to the civilization, and it is believed that this eventually led to the collapse of the civilization, including its peripheral areas.

However, in eastern Punjab and elsewhere, the legacy of the civilization was at least inherited in the technology of Harappan pottery, and this cultural tradition continued until around 1200 BCE, after the Aryan peoples had advanced into the Ganges Plain and settled there. The Indus Valley Civilization was probably a major source of the later cultural development of the Indian subcontinent, not only in terms of technology, but also in various aspects of society, religion, and culture. These still form part of the underlying current of Indian cultures.

[Masaaki Konishi]

"Indus Civilization, by M. Wheeler, translated by Sono Toshihiko (1966, Misuzu Shobo)" ▽ "The Flow of Indus Civilization, by M. Wheeler, translated by Kotani Nakao (1971, Sogensha)" ▽ "Hill of the Dead and Tower of Nirvana, by Sono Toshihiko and Nishikawa Koji (1970, Shinchosha)" ▽ "Indus Civilization, by Karashima Noboru, Kuwayama Masanobu, Konishi Masakatsu and Yamazaki Genichi (NHK Books)" ▽ "The Background of the Indus Civilization and the Aryan World, by Konishi Masakatsu" (included in "Iwanami Lecture Series on World History 3", 1970, Iwanami Shoten)"

[References] | Harappa | Mohenjo Daro

The ruins of Mohenjo Daro
The fortified area. In the center is a bathing area with a 12 x 7m water tank. To the east and west of it are large granaries and spacious buildings, making this the most important part of the city. The stupa in the back was built later. World Heritage Site "Mohenjo-Daro Ruins" (Pakistan, registered in 1980) Pakistan Lal Khana ©Shogakukan ">

The ruins of Mohenjo Daro

Indus Valley Civilization Chronology
©Shogakukan ">

Indus Valley Civilization Chronology

Distribution of Indus Valley Civilization Ruins
©Shogakukan ">

Distribution of Indus Valley Civilization Ruins

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

インダス川流域に、紀元前2000年前後を中心として栄えたインドの古代文明。D・R・サハニらによるハラッパー遺跡や、R・D・バナルジーらによるモヘンジョ・ダーロ遺跡の発見、発掘によってその存在が明らかになり、1921年以来今日に至るまで、各地で発掘調査が続けられている。

［小西正捷］

年代と分布

かつてインダス文明の年代は前2500～前1500年ごろと考えられていたが、昨今では前2350～前1800年ごろを最盛期とし、それぞれ前後に数百年にわたる生成期と衰退期を置く考え方が強まってきている。インダス文明の物質的基盤をなす遺物の集合をとくにハラッパー文化の名でよぶが、都市文明の様相を示すか否かにかかわらず、ハラッパー文化の遺物を出土する遺跡の数は、今日、大小あわせておよそ300ほどが確認されている。その広がりは他の古代文明に比べてきわめて広範囲にわたっており、東はデリー北西のアーラムギールプル、西はアラビア海沿岸のイラン国境にもほど近いソトカーゲン・ドール、北はジャム地方のマーンダー、南はカンベイ湾岸のマールワーンにまで及んでいる。すなわち距離にして東西1600キロメートル、南北1400キロメートルという範囲であるが、実は、西はバルーチスターン山脈、東はタール砂漠においてはその分布がほとんどみられず、またこれら300ほどの遺跡の90％以上が小規模な村落遺跡にすぎないことにも注意せねばならない。

［小西正捷］

指標遺物

ハラッパー文化の遺物はきわめて多岐にわたる。まずハラッパー土器であるが、多くはろくろ製で赤色の化粧土をかけ、そこに黒色顔料で、交差円文、魚鱗(ぎょりん)文、格子目文、市松文、波状文、帯状文などの幾何学文様のほか、ナツメヤシ、インドボダイジュ、ロゼットなどの植物文、クジャク、シカ、魚などの動物文を描いている。その器形は、大形の貯蔵甕(がめ)や水甕、壺(つぼ)、鉢、埦(わん)、高坏(たかつき)、ビーカー、尖底(せんてい)ゴブレットなど種類が多く、実用的なものほど無文の傾向がみられる。また無文土器のうち特徴のあるものには、火桶(ひおけ)とも漉器(こしき)とも考えられている多孔土器があり、丸底で直立した高い器壁の一面に多くの小孔をうがっている。その他の土製品では、母神像と思われるものをも含む多種の人偶や動物土偶、また車などをモデルとした玩具(がんぐ)があり、用途不明の小形陶板（テラコッタ・ケーキ）も特徴的である。これは1辺が6～10センチメートルの隅丸三角形をなす粗製の素焼陶板で、厚さは3センチメートルほど。普通は無文無彩色であるが、カーリーバンガン遺跡出土のものにはヤギの供犠(くぎ)を表す線刻画がみえ、この例などはなんらかの儀礼に用いられた可能性もある。

　石器は高度な技術を駆使した特殊なものが目だち、しかも銅製品がそれほど一般に普及していなかったようにみえることから、この文化が金石併用文化としての特徴をもっていたことがわかる。銅製武具類も数少ないが、脱蝋(だつろう)法によっていくつかのみごとな青銅製人像が鋳造された。人像には砂岩、石灰岩、凍石（ステアタイト）製のものもいくつかある。都市部では凍石製の印章が出土するが、これは普通、1片が2～5センチメートルの方形をなす薄い小形のものである。表側にはゼブウシ、ゾウ、カモシカ、サイ、トラなどの動物のほか、一角獣や半神半獣、またいくつかの動物を組み合わせて一つにしたもの、神々を表したと思われる人物など神話的モチーフもみられ、いずれもていねいに陰刻されている。上方にはインダス文字が彫り込まれているが、未解読のため、その用途はわからない。裏側に紐(ひも)を通すための有孔のつまみがついているため、護符の用途もあったかもしれないが、封泥(ふうでい)に用いられた例も数多い。そのほかビーズなどの装身具類も多数出土しており、ことに紅玉髄(こうぎょくずい)製のものなどは、おそらくメソポタミア方面にまで輸出された重要な品目であったろう。また尺や分銅も一定の規格で統一されており、都市プランにみられる徹底した計画性とともに注目される。

［小西正捷］

都市の様相

インダス文明は、インダス川中流域パンジャーブ地方のハラッパーと、下流域シンド地方のモヘンジョ・ダーロの二大都市のほか、シンド地方のチャヌフ・ダーロ、カッチ・グジャラート地方のスールコータダーおよびロータル、北部ラージャスターン地方のカーリーバンガンなど、いくつかの中小地方都市を擁していた。これらの都市が文明の構造にそれぞれどのような役割を果たしたかは不明であるが、なかでもモヘンジョ・ダーロとハラッパーが政治経済上の中枢をなしていたことに疑いはない。しかしロータルのように、国内の物資流通のみならず、クウェート沖のバーレーン島などを中継基地として、遠くメソポタミアとまで交易を行った港湾都市は、その役割も明らかである。ここでは長さ219メートル、幅37メートルもある大きな船溜(ふなだま)りが発掘された。またいずれの都市も、各都市人口に見合う以上の量を収納しうる穀物倉を備えており、一種の国庫か地方銀行のような役割を果たしていた。しかし、これらの余剰生産物が、広大なその版図内よりどのように集積されたかなど、当時の政治経済機構の様相は、かならずしも明らかではない。権力を象徴するような王宮や王墓、もしくは大神殿も、インダス文明ではまだ発見されていないからである。

　その反面インダス文明は、きわめて綿密に計算された都市計画性において際だっており、整然としたプランが見て取れる。すなわち概して都市は城塞(じょうさい)部と市街地に分けられ、城塞は市の西側に置かれることが多かった。その場合、城塞は高い基壇上に築かれて市街とは別に城壁で囲まれるか、市街地とともに市壁で囲まれ、隔壁でもって市街地からは隔てられていた。また墓地は市壁の外に置くのが普通であった。

　一方、市街地は、全域がほぼ東西南北に走る5、6本の大通りによって区画され、さらにそれぞれは、ほぼ直角に交差する中、小路によって碁盤目状にくぎられていた。密集して建つ家々は高い壁と小さな入口をもつが、中に入ると中庭があって、その周囲に小部屋が並び、また2階へも通じていた。中庭には井戸があることが多く、そこに炊事場や洗濯場などが併設されていた。各戸からの排水は、壁中の土管や、ときにはダストシュート状に傾斜した排水孔から汚水槽へ、さらに暗渠(あんきょ)となったれんが造りの下水道へと導かれた。大通りの本下水道にはマンホールも設けられ、定期的な清掃がなされたらしい。また街の角々には警備員用の小屋と思われる建物もあり、大通りには工芸職人の工房や店が軒を連ねていたが、市民の集う広場のようなものはなかった。

［小西正捷］

文明の起源

インダス文明がどのように興起したのかは、文明の構造同様、不明な点が多い。かつてはメソポタミアないしはイランからの影響が重視されたこともあったが、なんらかの影響が西方から及んだことは否定できないにせよ、インダス川流域そのものにおいて独自の文明への胎動があったことは確かであり、その点でコト・ディジ文化の展開が注目される。同文化の分布はシンド地方のコト・ディジを標準遺跡として南部一帯にみられるほか、ハラッパー遺跡下層やジャリールプルなどを経て、北はタキシラに近いサライコラーやジャングなどの諸遺跡にまで広がっていると考えられる。またそれとも関連があるが、やや異質な要素をももつ北部ラージャスターンのソティ文化も注目されるべきであろう。

　確かに、より西方のバルーチスターン山地においては、前3000年ごろより、イラン高地の諸文化の影響を強く受けた独特の諸文化が展開していた。ピシーン・クエタ、ゾブなどのやや北方の地域が比較的早くから開け、次いで南方のアムリ、ナール、トガウなどの文化が展開する。しかし前2500～前2400年ごろ、イラン高地の陸路による交易路が衰え、それにかわってマクラーン海岸沿いのクッリ文化が栄えた。この時期にはインダス文明はすでに成立しており、より西方の文明と、主として海路を経由して交渉をもっていた。したがって、インダス文明を形成する直接の文化的基盤は、やはりインダス平原部そのものにおいて備えられていたと考えられる。

［小西正捷］

文明の衰退と文化的継承

インダス文明がいかに衰退したかについても議論が多い。かつては『リグ・ベーダ』のような後世の宗教的賛歌の記述によって、インダス文明が、インドに進入してきたアーリア民族によって滅ぼされたかのような説も一部に唱えられたが、少なくとも考古学上それを支持する証拠はなにもなく、また前1500年ごろと考えられるアーリア民族の進入時には、すでに文明はそれより300～400年も前に、おそらくは内的要因による崩壊の兆しをみせていた。文明が衰退期を迎えるのは前1800年か、遅くも前1750年ごろであるが、その理由や様相は、地方によって大きく異なっていたと思われる。すなわち、その理由もけっして単一ではありえず、さまざまな原因が複雑に競合しあっていたであろう。たとえば、国家政体の弱体化、メソポタミアとの交易の途絶、自然破壊による乾燥化や塩害などに加えて、シンド地方などではマクラーン沿岸部の隆起と関連した溢水(いっすい)、またパンジャーブや北部ラージャスターンなどでは重要な交易路でもある河川の流路変更なども打撃を与え、やがて周縁部をも含めた文明の崩壊をみたのではないかと思われる。

　しかし東部パンジャーブなどでは、文明の遺産は少なくともハラッパー土器の技術に受け継がれ、この文化伝統は、アーリア民族がガンジス平原部にまで歩を進めて定着してのちの前1200年ごろまでも続いた。おそらくは技術面のみならず、社会、宗教、文化のさまざまな側面においても、インダス文明は後のインド亜大陸の文化展開にとっての大きな源流となった。それらはいまだにインド諸文化の底流、伏流の一部をなしている。

［小西正捷］

『M・ウィーラー著、曽野寿彦訳『インダス文明』（1966・みすず書房）』▽『M・ウィーラー著、小谷仲男訳『インダス文明の流れ』（1971・創元社）』▽『曽野寿彦・西川幸治著『死者の丘・涅槃の塔』（1970・新潮社）』▽『辛島昇・桑山正進・小西正捷・山崎元一著『インダス文明』（NHKブックス）』▽『小西正捷著「インダス文明とアーリヤ世界の背景」（『岩波講座　世界歴史3』所収・1970・岩波書店）』

[参照項目] | ハラッパー | モヘンジョ・ダーロ

モヘンジョ・ダーロの遺跡
城塞部。中央には12×7mの水槽を備えた沐浴場がみえる。その東西には大穀物倉や広壮な建物が並び、市内でもっとも重要な一画。後方の仏塔は後世に建てられたもの。世界文化遺産「モヘンジョ・ダーロの遺跡群」（パキスタン・1980年登録）　パキスタン　ラールカナー©Shogakukan">

モヘンジョ・ダーロの遺跡

インダス文明編年表

インダス文明の遺跡分布

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