The word imperialism is used in a very ambiguous way. In the broadest sense, as its origin is clear from the imperial state (imperium) ruled by the Roman emperor, it means the invasion and domination of other nations or territories with political, economic, military, and even cultural power and authority. In modern times, it was used in relation to Napoleon's attempt to realize an imperial state in the early 19th century, and then in the debate over the expansion and strengthening of the British colonial empire in the late 1870s, it became popular as a political term referring to territorial expansionism or colonialism. However, after the turn of the 20th century, imperialism came to be generally used in relation to the economic conflicts and disputes over the domination of the world market and the acquisition of colonies by the great capitalist powers, against the backdrop of the transition from the free competition stage of modern capitalism to the monopoly stage where monopolies and finance capital became dominant. [Yoshiie Seiji] The historical formation of imperialismSince first establishing the modern capitalist system, Britain had enjoyed overwhelming dominance as the world's factory, the world's merchant, and the world's banker. However, in the second half of the 19th century, the position of Britain was being threatened by the rapid capitalist development of Germany, France, and then the United States. The world entered an era of fierce competition among capitalist nations. This era of fierce competition was symbolized by the Great Depression that hit Europe for a long period of 23 years from 1873. In response to this prolonged depression, various countries adopted measures to acquire colonies as market territories for their own countries externally, and to promote monopoly business combinations internally. In particular, Britain, which was still the strongest country, continued to acquire colonies and dependent countries one after another, backed by its dominance in the world market, and by the time of the First World War had acquired 55 colonies, a territory 100 times larger than that of the mother country. Of course, colonial acquisition was not always achieved peacefully, but was always carried out through political and military conflicts and struggles among the great powers over the division and redivision of the world, such as the conflict with France over control of the Suez Canal in 1869, the armed invasion of Egypt, the formation of the Imperial and Federal Union by Britain in 1884 and its subsequent invasion of South Africa, as well as the Spanish-American War of 1898 and the Boer War by Britain in 1899. Then World War I broke out as an imperialist war between the "have countries" such as Britain and France and the "have-not countries" such as Germany (which would soon be joined by Japan and Russia) over the redivision of the world's colonies and dependent countries. The root cause of the intensification of the conflicts over world domination among the great powers is the development and transformation of free competitive capitalism into monopoly capitalism dominated by monopolies and finance capital, which took place against the backdrop of the Great Depression. If we consider the prolonged depression to be the result of the transition from the era of British unilateral capitalism to an era of excess productive capacity in the world market due to the competitive development of various capitalist countries, then while monopolistic business combinations such as cartels and trusts spread as a scheme to divide up the world market in search of sales channels, on the other hand, the conflicts and struggles among the great powers to re-divide the world over export destinations for excess production and capital also intensified. In particular, the export of excess capital itself, which became a characteristic of international economic relations during this period, was accompanied by military invasions in the name of protecting the interests of export capital, and as a result, colonial domination by the great powers became an inevitable trend and spread. Thus, this era became what historians later called the "classical era of imperialism." [Yoshiie Seiji] Theoretical Analysis of ImperialismHobson's TheoryJ. A. Hobson, who lived in the largest colonial empire, Great Britain, was the first to attempt a theoretical analysis of imperialism from an economic standpoint. He attributed the cause of industrial depression in capitalism to the unequal distribution of wealth and underconsumption resulting from overinvestment by the wealthy class, but in his book Imperialism (1902) he emphasized that the economic cause of imperialism was the foreign policy (with military force) of industrialists and financial investors who sought to acquire a market for domestic surplus goods and capital. His theory of imperialism was based on the reality of Britain as a colonial nation with a huge overseas investor class, and sharply criticized the transition of British capitalism to a parasitic rentier state. At the same time, he believed that if income distribution were equalized and consumption increased, overproduction and excess capital, and therefore imperialist policies, would be eliminated. This theory was severely criticized as reformism by Marxists who emphasized the inevitability of imperialism under monopoly capitalism, but on the other hand, it was later highly praised by Keynes along with his theory of underconsumption and rentierism. [Yoshiie Seiji] Theories of German Social DemocracyThe analysis of imperialism was then attempted by Marxists who gathered in the German Social Democratic Party. First, R. Hilferding wrote Finance Capital (1910), in which he tried to apply and develop the theory of Marx's Capital to the latest realities of capitalism. He defined bank capital as "finance capital," which intensively mobilizes idle monetary capital generated in the capitalist economic process and transforms it into industrial capital through the joint-stock company system and loans, and pointed out that a new characteristic of capitalism is the domination of industry and monopoly business combinations such as cartels and trusts by this finance capital. He explained that imperialism is part of the foreign policy that finance capital adopts, along with high protective tariffs, dumping, international cartels, and capital exports. Similarly, the Social Democratic theorist K. Kautsky, in essays published during World War I, viewed imperialism as a policy system for the control of backward agricultural regions with the aim of obtaining monopoly profits by the finance capital that controls advanced industrial countries. He then advocated the theory of "ultra-imperialism," arguing that capitalists, realizing the enormous burden of imperialist war, would eventually reach an agreement for the peaceful division and domination of the world. Their theories were criticized by Lenin in his book Imperialism (see below) for being erroneous in that they underestimated the role of monopoly capital and considered imperialism merely a policy system, but their theory of joint-stock companies and the concept of finance capital were basically accepted. On the other hand, R. Luxemburg, from the left wing of the same Social Democrat Party, wrote "Capital Accumulation" (1913) and criticized Kautsky and others. She argued that for the realistic capital accumulation process of capitalism to be possible, it must be mediated through the exploitation and plunder of non-capitalist regions, which inevitably leads to imperialist tendencies such as protective tariffs and militarism on the one hand, and the constant narrowing of non-capitalist territories on the other. Her theory, which ultimately leads to the end of the capitalist world, sharply pointed out the severity of imperialist conflicts, but based on a misunderstanding of Marx's theory of reproduction-accumulation, she dissolved imperialism into the general characteristic of capitalism, that is, capital accumulation, and did not elucidate the essence of modern imperialism. However, after World War II, when modern imperialism and therefore colonialism was collapsing, her theory was reevaluated as a precursor to the domination-subordination theory (neo-imperialism theory) proposed by A. G. Frank and S. Amin, which took the standpoint of the North-South problem, or the independent economic development of developing countries. [Yoshiie Seiji] Lenin's theoryThe Russian revolutionary Lenin's Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917, also known as Imperialism) is said to have critically inherited the above theories of the German Social Democratic Party and compiled Marxist analysis of imperialism. He identified the following five basic characteristics of imperialism: (1) In the process of capitalist market competition, production and capital became increasingly concentrated in a small number of large companies, and on the basis of this high degree of concentration and accumulation, monopoly combinations such as cartels, syndicates, and trusts developed, and free competition capitalism transitioned to monopoly capitalism. Monopolies control markets and prices, generating high monopoly profits, while at the same time forming a small number of business combinations that integrate large companies across a variety of industries, and have come to occupy a decisive position in all economic life. (2) In addition to promoting the formation of these monopolies, the fusion and integration of large industries and large banks progressed through the lending of funds, the issuance of shares, and the dispatch of executives, and finance capital was formed as the dominant form of capital. Finance capital dominates production and capital, directs the formation of monopolies, obtains monopoly profits, and exercises financial oligarchy control over all areas of the economy. (3) The control of the financial oligarchy is not limited to the economic sphere, but also exerts influence in the political sphere, and at the same time expands internationally. In other words, the surplus capital generated by monopolies and the formation of finance capital is exported to underdeveloped regions in search of higher profits and more favorable investment opportunities. Capital exports, which have become a major feature of the international economy of monopoly capitalism in addition to traditional commodity exports, have become the main source of enormous profits for finance capital due to exclusive and preferential trading conditions (preferential trade treaties, exclusive occupation of railways and ports, underwriting of securities issuances on favorable terms, etc.). (4) Thus, the world market has come to be divided and controlled by international monopolies. The main form of this is the division of the world by international cartels, international syndicates, international trusts, etc., as seen in the electric and oil industries and international finance capital. (5) Moreover, the division of the world market became the economic basis for the territorial division of the earth by the great powers, and developed their colonial rule. For example, in 1914, the six great powers controlled a total of about four times as many colonies as their home countries, led by Great Britain, which had about 100 times as many colonies as its home countries, and France, which controlled about 20 times as many as its home countries, along with Russia, Germany, the United States, and Japan. 90% of Africa and most of the South Sea Islands were colonies of the great powers. Now, the great powers can no longer strengthen their interests by expanding their territories, except by redividing the world. This conflict between the great powers over the redivision of the world is the root of imperialism and the economic background that makes imperialist wars inevitable. In this sense, imperialism is the "highest stage of development of capitalism," and its economic basis is monopoly capitalism. At the same time, imperialism, which is based on domestic and international monopolies, economic domination by finance capital, and political tyranny, also signifies a stage of capitalism in which rentier parasitism and decay have progressed, and historically, it must be seen as "dying capitalism" that has completed its progressive role. Furthermore, high monopoly profits create the economic potential for a privileged status for some workers in the great powers, creating a tendency for the international labor movement and socialist movement to split (by this labor aristocracy). However, imperialist national oppression and strengthening of political and economic domination expand and strengthen these movements, and in that respect imperialism is on the "eve of the socialist revolution." Lenin's theory of imperialism, as described above, was a critical culmination of the various theories that had existed up to that point, and it was an attempt to analyze the root causes of World War I from the perspective of the basic trends of the capitalist system, and to theorize his strategy of socialist revolution, "from war to civil war, and then to revolution," from a Marxist standpoint. Then, (1) after the success of the socialist revolution in Russia during World War I, the world split into two major systems, capitalism and socialism, and entered an era of competition; (2) as a result of the war, the status of European countries, not only the defeated Germany but also the victorious countries Britain and France, declined significantly both economically and politically and entered a long period of stagnation; (3) on the other hand, the United States, which had shown remarkable growth as the leading country of the capitalist world, entered a long period of depression that began with the depression of 1929, and this depression marked the beginning of an era in which the world entered an era of multipolar bloc economies centered on colonial spheres; (4) then we entered the second imperialist war, World War II; and (5) after World War II, people's democratic revolutions occurred in Eastern European countries and China, and the socialist world expanded. Against this backdrop, the legitimacy and authority of Lenin's theory of imperialism was further enhanced, while being reinforced by new theories such as the "general crisis of capitalism" theory and the "state monopoly capitalism" theory. [Yoshiie Seiji] Post-war ImperialismOn the other hand, however, the political and economic trends of the world after World War II have given rise to new problems that cannot be fully explained by Lenin's theory alone. That is, (1) the Second World War triggered the independence of one colony after another of the capitalist powers' colonies and dependent countries, and the collapse of colonialism and the end of imperialism became an undeniable trend in world history. (2) Despite this, the postwar capitalist economy rapidly emerged from the postwar period of chaos and entered a period of economic growth that was rare in history, although to varying degrees. (3) On the other hand, in the socialist world, the death of the dictatorial leader Stalin created a mood of easing the East-West conflict, and a direction was put forward for peaceful coexistence with the capitalist system. (4) ) However, compared to the steady growth of the capitalist system, the economic achievements of the socialist system were not necessarily good, and conflicts and divisions grew between the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and between the Soviet Union and China. (5) Furthermore, former colonies and dependent countries that achieved independence after the war became the majority in the United Nations and other organizations, increasing their voice and influence in international politics and economics. These are trends that cannot be fully explained by Leninist theory, which defines imperialism as an inevitable product of capitalism and emphasizes the inevitability of socialist revolution and the "dying away" of capitalism. Some have also argued that the independence of the former colonies after the war was merely formal, that in reality they are still politically, economically, and militarily dependent, and that the roots of Leninist imperialism remain. However, this theory cannot fully explain the movement of oil-producing countries to raise oil prices in order to break the control of international oil capital (major oil companies), or the movement of resource nationalism, which is strengthening permanent sovereignty over territory and resources. In addition, the neo-imperialism theory has also argued that the postwar international economic relationship is one of unequal domination-subordination between the core developed countries and the satellite developing countries, and that the "formation of independent national economies" in developing countries begins with breaking this chain of subordination. Indeed, even the newly industrialized countries that are currently experiencing remarkable growth have huge accumulated foreign debts and are facing economic difficulties. However, the interests of the developed countries, which are the lenders, and the newly industrialized countries, which are the borrowers, regarding this foreign debt are complex, and it cannot be said that the position of the debtor countries is always subordinate. At the very least, the root of the "North-South problem" after World War II should be seen as the reform movement that sought to achieve national independence and independent economic development, and as a movement completely opposed to the imperialist rule of the past. Furthermore, there was the problem of the tendency for fragmentation within the socialist system since the 1950s and 1960s, and the Soviet Union's political and economic pressure and military intervention in Eastern Europe in an attempt to prevent this, and China severely criticized these Soviet actions as great-power and social-imperialist actions. If we consider such direct and indirect interventions (sometimes involving the use of force) by great powers in weaker countries to be imperialist actions, then it becomes possible to characterize a new imperialism as an attempt by major powers, such as the US intervention in the Vietnam War and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, to expand and strengthen their dominating influence over weaker and less developed countries and regions in many aspects, including political, economic, and military, as well as social and cultural, regardless of their socio-economic systems. In this sense, attention should be paid once again to the theory of J. Schumpeter's Sociology of Imperialism (1919), which, from the standpoint of non-Marxist economics, sees imperialism as a manifestation of the "spirit of the times" that is born and develops in a certain historical era, and that this spirit of the times is carried and inspired by old forces that have been left behind by changes in the economy and society. Schumpeter analyzed the imperialist tendencies recognized at the time as "atavistic" born out of the "purposeless disposition to unlimited expansion of the state" led by the aforementioned old social forces, and concluded that as modern capitalism becomes more rational and develops, it will eventually disappear. Some argue that the Leninist theory of imperialism is valid, considering the collapse of the Soviet socialist system around 1990, the formation of a political and military superpower system by the United States alone, and the movement toward supranational regional integration such as the EU (European Union), as a new form of imperialism that accompanies the internationalization and globalization of the modern economy, that is, the third stage of the development of 20th century imperialism (following the second stage of the US-Soviet bipolar system). However, when we consider the fierce economic competition in the world market involving newly industrialized countries such as East Asia and China in addition to the developed countries of Japan, the United States, and Europe, and the economic independence and increased political influence of former colonies, such a theory is an unprincipled expansion of the conceptual framework of analysis and is not persuasive. As many historians point out, imperialism should basically be seen as a historical reality that characterizes one important aspect of modern history from the 19th century to the two world wars of the 20th century. [Yoshiie Seiji] Imperialism in JapanThere are several theories about the time when Japanese imperialism was established. Monopoly capitalism was established in Japan after World War I, and if we consider monopoly capitalism = imperialism, then Japanese imperialism was established after World War I, and there are theories that support this. However, as Lenin also pointed out as a characteristic of Japanese imperialism, "the monopoly of military power, of vast territory, or of the special convenience of plundering other ethnic groups, China, and others, partly supplements and partly replaces the monopoly of modern, modern finance capital," as shown in the fact that Japan embarked on imperialist domination of other ethnic groups before the establishment of monopoly capitalism, and so various theories have been born that claim that Japanese imperialism was established before the establishment of monopoly capitalism. These theories are also divided into the period of the Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, and the Russo-Japanese War. In addition to these domestic factors, the fact that imperialism was established in world history from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, and Japan's actions became part of the international imperialist conflict and played an imperialist role, are also the basis for the birth of such theories. At present, the majority opinion in academic circles maintains that Japanese imperialism was established before the establishment of monopoly capitalism. The first characteristic of Japanese imperialism thus established is that "the aggressiveness of monopoly capitalism is doubled by the military adventurism of absolutist military-feudal imperialism" (1932 Theses). In other words, although the economic structure had reached the stage of modern capitalist imperialism characterized by monopoly capitalism, the semi-feudal absolutist Emperor System reigned over this basic structure, and the inherent material foundation of this Emperor System was the semi-feudal tenant farming system = parasitic landlordism. Japanese imperialism has the dual impetus of this absolutist aggressiveness = military-feudal imperialism and modern capitalist imperialism, and is characterized as a dual imperialism, so to speak. Even commentators who cannot agree with this theory of dual imperialism agree that Japanese imperialism has military-feudal characteristics. The second characteristic of Japanese imperialism is that it is an imperialism that is financially dependent on British and American imperialism. In 1916 (Taisho 5), the total amount of foreign capital was about 1.9 billion yen, accounting for 52% of the total national income of 3.6 billion yen, and although it was politically independent, it had the characteristics of a financially dependent imperialism. This financial dependence gave rise to a course of diplomatic dependence known as "Ministry of Foreign Affairs diplomacy = Kasumigaseki diplomacy," while the opposing military diplomacy, known as "Miyakezaka diplomacy," was also born. Japanese imperialism had three fundamental contradictions. The first fundamental contradiction was the contradiction between the emperor system, the bourgeoisie, and the landlords on the one hand, and the workers, peasants, and urban middle class on the other. The second fundamental contradiction was the contradiction between the imperial powers, especially the American and British imperialists. The third fundamental contradiction was the contradiction between Japanese imperialism and the peoples of its colonies and semi-colonies. After the success of the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the emergence of socialism, a fourth fundamental contradiction was added: the contradiction between Japanese imperialism and socialism. Since its invasion of northeastern China (Manchuria) in 1931 (Showa 6), Japanese imperialism entered the Pacific War after the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and was defeated in August 1945 and occupied by the Allied Powers. It was destroyed by their "demilitarization and democratization policy." [Inumaru Yoshikazu] "Imperialism and Social Classes" by J. Schumpeter, translated by Tsuru Shigeto (1956, Iwanami Shoten) " ▽ "The History of Japanese Imperialism, 3 volumes, by Koyama Hirotake and Asada Mitsuteru (1958-60, Aoki Shoten)" ▽ "Lectures on Modern Imperialism, edited by Ikumi Takuichi et al. (1963, Nippon Hyoronsha)" ▽ "The Formation of Japanese Imperialism" by Inoue Kiyoshi (1968, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "The Age of Imperialism" by Eguchi Bokuro (1969, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "On Imperialism, by J.A. Hobson, translated by Yanaihara Tadao (Iwanami Bunko)" ▽ "Finance Capital, volumes 1 and 2, by R. Hilferding, translated by Okazaki Jiro (Iwanami Bunko)" ▽ "On Imperialism, by Lenin, translated by Soejima Tadenori (Otsuki Shoten, Kokumin Bunko)" [References] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
帝国主義ということばはきわめて多義的に用いられる。広義かつ一般的には、その語源がローマ皇帝の支配する皇帝国家(インペリウムimperium)に由来することからも明らかなように、政治的、経済的、軍事的、さらには文化的な権力・権威をもってする他民族の領土や国家への侵略と支配、を意味する。近代では19世紀初めナポレオンによる皇帝国家実現の企てに関連して用いられ、ついで1870年代後半イギリスの植民地帝国の拡大強化をめぐる論争のなかで、領土膨張主義ないし植民地主義をさす政治上の用語として普及した。しかし、その後、20世紀への転換期を挟んで帝国主義は、近代資本主義の自由競争段階から独占と金融資本が支配的となる独占段階への移行転化を背景に、列強資本主義諸国による世界市場支配と植民地獲得をめぐる経済上の対立と紛争に関連して用いられるのが一般的な傾向となった。 [吉家清次] 帝国主義の歴史的形成最初に近代資本主義体制を確立して以降、世界の工場、世界の商人、世界の銀行家として、その圧倒的な優位性を享受していたイギリスの地位も、19世紀後半になると、まずドイツ、フランス、ついでアメリカの急速な資本主義的発展によって脅かされつつあった。世界は諸資本主義国間の厳しい競争の時代に入ったのである。この厳しい競争の時代を象徴的に示したのが、1873年から実に23年間の長期にわたってヨーロッパを襲った大不況である。この長期不況への対応策として諸国が採用したのが、外に向かっては自国の支配市場領域としての植民地の獲得であり、内部的には独占的企業結合の推進であった。とくに、なお最強国であったイギリスは、世界市場での優位性を背景に次々と植民地・従属国を獲得し、第一次世界大戦前には本国の100倍もの領土の55の植民地を獲得した。もちろん植民地獲得は平和的にのみ行われたわけではなく、1869年のイギリスのスエズ運河の支配をめぐるフランスとの対立やエジプトへの武力侵入、1884年のイギリスによる「帝国連邦同盟」の結成と、続く南アフリカへの侵略、さらには1898年のアメリカ・スペイン戦争、1899年のイギリスによるブーア戦争など、つねに列強間の世界の分割と再分割をめぐる政治的・軍事的対立と闘争を通して進められたのである。そして第一次世界大戦が、イギリスやフランスなど「持てる国々」とドイツ(やがて日本やロシアも加わる)などの「持たざる国々」との間の世界の植民地・従属国の再分割をめぐる帝国主義戦争として勃発(ぼっぱつ)することになる。 ところで、諸列強の世界支配をめぐる対立激化の根底には、大不況期を背景とする自由競争資本主義の、独占と金融資本が支配する独占資本主義への発展転化がある。不況の長期化が、イギリスの一国資本主義の時代から諸資本主義国による競争的発展に伴う世界市場の生産力過剰化の時代への移行の結果として起こったとするならば、カルテルやトラストといった独占的企業結合が販路を求めての世界市場の分割のための企てとして広がっていく一方で、他方では過剰化した生産と資本の輸出先をめぐる諸列強の世界の再分割のための対立と抗争も激しくなっていく。とりわけこの期の国際経済関係で特徴的となった過剰資本そのものの輸出は、輸出資本の権益の擁護という名目での軍事的侵攻を伴う結果、諸列強による植民地的支配は不可避的な傾向となって広まっていった。こうして時代は、のちに歴史家たちのいう「帝国主義の古典的時代」となったのである。 [吉家清次] 帝国主義の理論的分析ホブソンの理論最大の植民地帝国イギリスに生きたJ・A・ホブソンは、経済学の立場から帝国主義の理論的分析を試みた最初の人である。彼は、資本主義の産業不況の原因を富の分配の不平等と富裕階級による過剰投資からくる過少消費に求めたが、その著『帝国主義論』(1902)では、帝国主義の経済的原因を、国内の過剰な商品と資本のための市場を獲得しようとする産業家と金融投資家たちの(武力を伴った)対外政策にあると強調している。彼の帝国主義論は、植民地国家として莫大(ばくだい)な海外投資家階級を擁しているイギリスの現実を踏まえ、イギリス資本主義の寄生的な金利生活者国家への移行を鋭く批判したものであった。同時に彼は、もし所得分配が平等化され、消費が増大すれば、過剰生産と過剰資本したがって帝国主義政策も解消されるはずだと考えた。この理論は、独占資本主義のもとでの帝国主義の不可避性を強調するマルクス主義者たちによって改良主義と厳しく批判されたが、他方、のちにケインズにより、その過少消費説や金利生活者論とともに高く評価された。 [吉家清次] ドイツ社会民主党の諸理論帝国主義の分析は、ついでドイツ社会民主党に結集するマルクス主義者たちによって試みられた。まず、R・ヒルファーディングは『金融資本論』(1910)を著し、マルクスの『資本論』の理論を資本主義の最新の現実に適用し発展させようとした。彼は、資本主義経済過程に発生する遊休貨幣資本を集中的に動員し、株式会社制度や融資などを通して産業資本に転化している銀行資本を「金融資本」と規定し、この金融資本による産業とカルテルやトラストなどの独占的企業結合体の支配がみられるのが、資本主義の新しい特徴だと指摘した。そして帝国主義とは、高率保護関税、ダンピング、国際カルテル、資本輸出などとともに、金融資本が対外面でとる政策の一環であると説明した。 同様に社会民主党の理論家K・カウツキーは、第一次世界大戦中に発表した諸論文で、帝国主義を、先進工業国を支配する金融資本による独占利潤の獲得を目ざしての後進的農業地域支配のための政策体系であるとみた。ついで彼は、帝国主義戦争の莫大な負担に気づいた資本家たちが、やがて平和的な世界の分割支配のための協定を結ぶだろうとして、「超帝国主義」論を主張した。 彼らの理論は、レーニンの『帝国主義論』(後述)によって、独占資本の役割を過小に評価し、帝国主義を単なる政策体系とのみ考える点で誤っていると批判されたが、株式会社論や金融資本概念などは基本的に受け入れられた。 他方、R・ルクセンブルクは、同じ社会民主党の左派の立場から、『資本蓄積論』(1913)を著し、カウツキーらを批判した。彼女は、資本主義の現実的な資本蓄積の過程が可能となるためには、非資本主義的な地域の搾取と収奪を媒介としなければならないが、このことは、一方で保護関税や軍国主義などの帝国主義的傾向を、他方で非資本主義的領域の絶えざる狭隘(きょうあい)化とを必然的に引き起こすと説く。終局的には資本主義的世界の終焉(しゅうえん)を導くとみる彼女の理論は、帝国主義的対立の厳しさを鋭く指摘するものではあったが、マルクスの再生産=蓄積理論の誤解にたち、帝国主義を資本蓄積という資本主義の一般的性格に解消し、近代帝国主義の本質の解明にはならなかった。しかし、彼女の理論は、近代帝国主義したがって植民地主義の崩壊が進んだ第二次世界大戦後において、A・G・フランクやS・アミンらによる南北問題=発展途上国の自立的経済開発論の立場からの支配‐従属論(新帝国主義論)の先行理論として再評価された。 [吉家清次] レーニンの理論以上のドイツ社会民主党の諸理論を批判的に継承し、マルクス主義の帝国主義分析を集大成したとされるのが、ロシアの革命家レーニンの『資本主義の最高の段階としての帝国主義』(1917。いわゆる『帝国主義論』)である。彼は、帝国主義の基本的特徴を次の5点に求めている。(1)資本主義的市場競争の過程で生産と資本がますます少数の巨大企業に集中し、この高度の集中と集積を基礎にカルテル、シンジケート、トラストといった独占的結合が発展し、自由競争資本主義は独占資本主義に移行した。独占は市場と価格を支配し、独占的高利潤を生み出すと同時に、多様な産業にまたがる大企業を統合する少数の企業結合体(コンビネーション)を形成し、全経済生活で決定的な位置を占めるに至っている。(2)これら独占形成を促すとともに、資金の融資や株式発行さらには役員派遣などを通して巨大産業と巨大銀行との融合・一体化が進み、支配的な資本形態としての金融資本が形成された。金融資本は、生産と資本の支配的部分を占め、独占体の形成を指導し、独占利潤を取得し、経済の全領域にわたる金融寡頭制支配を行っている。(3)金融寡頭制支配は、経済領域にとどまらず、政治の領域にも影響力を及ぼし、同時に国際的にも拡大している。すなわち、独占と金融資本の形成によって生じた過剰資本は、より高い利潤とより有利な投資機会を求めて後進的地域に輸出される。従来の商品輸出と並び、これを越えて独占資本主義の国際経済面の一大特徴となった資本輸出は、排他的で優遇的な取引条件(特恵的な通商条約、鉄道・港湾の排他的占有、有利な条件での証券発行の引受けなど)によって、金融資本の莫大な利潤の主要源泉となっている。(4)こうして世界市場は、国際的な独占体によって分割支配されるに至っている。電気産業や石油産業さらに国際金融資本などにみられる国際カルテル、国際シンジケート、国際トラストなどによる世界の分割協定が、その主要な形態である。(5)そればかりか世界市場の分割は、諸列強国による地球の領土的分割の経済的な基礎となり、植民地支配を発展させた。たとえば1914年では、本国の約100倍の植民地をもつイギリスと、同じく約20倍を支配するフランスを筆頭に、ロシア、ドイツ、アメリカ、日本を加えて六大列強は合計で本国の約4倍の植民地を支配していた。アフリカの90%、南洋諸島のほとんどが列強諸国の植民地となっていた。いまや諸列強の支配領土拡大による権益の強化は、世界の再分割以外によっては不可能となっている。この世界の再分割をめぐる列強国間の抗争こそ、帝国主義の根本であり、帝国主義戦争を不可避としている経済的背景である。この意味で帝国主義は、「資本主義の最高の発展段階」であり、その経済的基礎は独占資本主義である。同時に帝国主義は、国内・国際にまたがっての独占と金融資本による経済的支配と政治的専制のうえに成立している点で、金利生活者的な寄生性と腐朽化が進んだ資本主義の段階をも意味し、歴史的にみて、その進歩的な役割を終えた「死滅しつつある資本主義」とみなければならない。また独占的高利潤は、列強国内の一部の労働者に特権的な地位をもたらす経済的可能性をつくりだし、国際的な労働運動と社会主義運動の(この労働貴族層による)分裂傾向をつくりだす。しかし、帝国主義的な民族抑圧と政治的・経済的支配の強化は、これらの運動を拡大強化しており、その点で帝国主義は「社会主義革命の前夜」となっている。 以上のレーニンの帝国主義論は、それまでの諸理論を批判的に集大成するとともに、第一次世界大戦の根本を資本主義体制の基本動向から分析し、「戦争から内乱へ、そして革命へ」という彼の社会主義革命の戦略をマルクス主義の立場から理論化しようとしたものであったといえよう。そしてその後、(1)第一次世界大戦の過程でロシアに社会主義革命が成功して以後、世界は資本主義体制と社会主義体制との二大体制に分裂、競合の時代に入ったこと、(2)大戦の結果、敗戦国ドイツのみならず戦勝国イギリス、フランスといったヨーロッパ諸国の地位が経済的にも政治的にも大きく後退し、長期にわたって停滞していったこと、(3)他方、資本主義世界の指導国として目覚ましい発展をみせたアメリカも、1929年の恐慌に始まる長期不況に突入し、この不況を契機に世界は植民地圏を軸とする多極的なブロック経済の時代となっていったこと、(4)ついで第二次帝国主義戦争である第二次世界大戦に突入していったこと、そして、(5)第二次世界大戦後、東欧諸国や中国に人民民主主義革命が起こり、社会主義的世界が拡大したこと、など一連の現実を背景に、「資本主義の全般的危機」論や「国家独占資本主義」論といった新しい諸説に補強されながら、このレーニンの帝国主義論の正当性と権威が一段と高まっていった。 [吉家清次] 戦後の帝国主義しかしながら反面、第二次世界大戦後の世界の政治・経済的諸動向は、このレーニンの理論だけでは十分に説明しえない新しい諸問題をも生み出してきた。すなわち、(1)第二次世界大戦を契機に資本主義列強諸国の植民地・従属国が次々と独立し、植民地主義の崩壊、帝国主義の終焉が、世界史の紛れもない潮流となっていったこと、(2)にもかかわらず、戦後の資本主義経済は、戦後の混乱期を急速に脱し、程度の差はあれ歴史上まれなほどの経済成長の時期となったこと、(3)他方、社会主義世界でも独裁的指導者スターリンの死をきっかけに東西対立緩和の気運が生まれ、資本主義体制との平和共存の方向が打ち出されたこと、(4)しかし、資本主義体制の着実な成長に比べて、社会主義体制の経済的成果はかならずしも良好とはいえず、ソ連対東欧、ソ連対中国という対立と分裂化が進んでいったこと、(5)そして戦後独立を達成した旧植民地・従属国が国連などで多数派となり、国際政治・経済面での発言力と影響力を増大していったこと、など一連の動向は、帝国主義を資本主義の不可避的産物と規定し、社会主義革命と資本主義の「死滅」の必然性を強調したレーニン的理論では説明しきれない動きといえよう。 戦後の旧植民地の独立は形式的なものであり、実質的には依然として政治的、経済的、軍事的な従属関係にあり、レーニン的な帝国主義の根本は存続しているとする新植民地主義説も、一部に登場した。しかしこの理論では、石油産出諸国による国際石油資本(メジャー)の支配をはねのけての石油値上げの動きや、領土・資源の恒久主権を強めつつある資源ナショナリズムの動きなどを十分に説明しえないであろう。また、戦後の国際経済関係は、中枢的な先進工業諸国と衛星的発展途上諸国との間の不平等な支配‐従属関係にあり、発展途上国の「自立的国民経済の形成」は、この従属の鎖を断ち切ることから始まるとする新帝国主義論も説かれた。確かに、現在目覚ましく成長を遂げつつある新興工業諸国でさえ、莫大な累積対外債務を抱え、経済困難に直面していた。しかし、この対外債務をめぐる貸し手である先進諸国と借り手である新興工業諸国との利害関係は複雑であり、債務国の立場がつねに従属的であるとはかならずしもいえない。少なくとも第二次世界大戦後の「南北問題」の根本は、民族的独立と自立的な経済発展を達成しようとする改革運動にあり、かつての帝国主義的支配とはまったく反対の動きであるとみるべきであろう。 さらに1950、60年代以降での社会主義体制内部での分裂化傾向と、これを阻止しようとするソ連の東欧圏への政治的・経済的圧力と軍事的介入という問題があり、こうしたソ連の動きをとらえて、中国は、大国主義的で社会帝国主義的行動と厳しく批判した。こうした大国による弱小国への直接・間接の(ときに武力行使を伴った)介入をも帝国主義的行動とみるならば、アメリカのベトナム戦争への介入と同時にソ連のアフガニスタンへの進攻があり、社会経済体制にかかわりなく、政治的、経済的さらに軍事的に有力な大諸国が、その権力を用いて弱小で後進的な国や地域に及ぼす政治的、経済的、軍事的さらには社会的、文化的な多面にわたる支配的影響力の拡大・強化の企てだ、とする新しい帝国主義の特徴づけが可能となるであろう。その意味で、非マルクス経済学の立場から、帝国主義をある歴史的時代に生まれ発展する「時代精神」の現れとみて、その時代精神はむしろ経済社会の変化に取り残された古い勢力によって担われ鼓舞されるとみるJ・シュンペーターの『帝国主義の社会学』(1919)の理論が改めて注目されよう。そこで彼は、当時認められた帝国主義的傾向は、前記のような古い社会勢力に指導された「国家の無際限な拡張という無目的な素質」から生まれた「隔世遺伝的なもの」と分析し、近代資本主義が合理化され発展するにつれて、やがて消滅していく傾向だと結論している。 1990年前後でのソ連社会主義体制の崩壊とアメリカ一国による政治的、軍事的超大国体制の形成、さらにはEU(ヨーロッパ連合)などの超国家的な地域統合化の動きなどをとらえて、現代経済の国際化・世界化に伴う帝国主義の新しい展開形態、すなわち(米ソ二極体制の第二段階に続く)20世紀帝国主義の第三の発展段階と規定して、レーニン的帝国主義理論の有効性を説くむきもあるが、しかし日米欧先進諸国間に加えて東アジアや中国などの新興工業諸国地域を交えての世界市場での激しい経済競争や旧植民地諸国の経済的自立化と政治的発言力の増大などを考えるならば、こうした説は分析の概念枠の無原則的な拡張であり、説得力をもつものではない。多くの歴史家が指摘するように、帝国主義とは、基本的には19世紀から20世紀の二つの世界戦争に至る近現代史の重要ではあるが一つの側面を特徴づける歴史の現実とみるべきものであろう。 [吉家清次] 日本における帝国主義日本帝国主義の成立の時期については、いくつかの説がある。日本において独占資本主義が確立したのは第一次世界大戦後であり、独占資本主義=帝国主義とみるならば、日本帝国主義の成立は第一次世界大戦後ということになり、そういう説も現に存在する。しかし、日本帝国主義の特徴としてレーニンも指摘した、「軍事力の、あるいは広大な領土の、または他民族、中国その他を略奪する特殊な便宜の独占が、現代の最新の金融資本の独占を、一部は補充し、一部は代位している」という事実に示されているように、独占資本主義の確立以前に帝国主義的他民族支配に乗り出しているという事実があるので、日本帝国主義は、独占資本主義の確立以前に成立したとする諸説が生まれてくる。それらの説も、日清(にっしん)戦争、義和団事件、日露戦争の時期というように分かれている。さらにこのような国内的要因のほかに、19世紀末から20世紀初めにかけて世界史的に帝国主義が成立して、日本の動向が国際的な帝国主義的対立の一環となることで帝国主義的な役割を演じるという事情も、このような説の生まれる根拠になっている。いまのところ学界の多数意見は、この独占資本主義確立以前に日本帝国主義の成立を主張している。 こうして成立した日本帝国主義の特徴の第一は、「独占資本主義の侵略性は、絶対主義的な軍事的封建的帝国主義の軍事的冒険主義によって倍加されている」(三二年テーゼ)点にある。つまり、経済構造上では独占資本主義によって特徴づけられる近代的資本主義的帝国主義の段階に到達しているにもかかわらず、この基礎構造のうえに、半封建的な絶対主義的天皇制が君臨しており、この天皇制の固有の物質的基礎は半封建的小作制度=寄生地主制にあり、日本帝国主義は、この絶対主義的侵略主義=軍事的封建的帝国主義と近代資本主義的帝国主義との二重の契機をもち、いわば二重の帝国主義として特徴づけられる。この二重の帝国主義の理論に賛成できない論者も、日本帝国主義は軍事的封建的な特徴をもつものとする点では一致している。 日本帝国主義の特徴の第二は、英・米帝国主義に金融的に従属した帝国主義であるという点にある。1916年(大正5)における外資の総額は約19億円で、国民所得総額の36億円の52%を占め、政治的には独立しているが、金融的に従属した帝国主義の特徴をもっている。この金融的従属から外交的従属のコース=「外務省外交=霞が関(かすみがせき)外交」とよばれるものも生まれ、一方、それに反対する軍部外交=「三宅坂(みやけざか)外交」も生まれる。 この日本帝国主義は三大基本矛盾をもっていた。第一の基本矛盾は、国内における天皇制・ブルジョアジー・地主と、労働者・農民・都市小市民との矛盾、すなわち国内矛盾である。第二の基本矛盾は、列強帝国主義、ことに米・英帝国主義との矛盾である。第三の基本矛盾は、日本帝国主義と植民地・半植民地の諸民族との矛盾である。1917年ロシア革命が成功して社会主義が出現して以後は、第四の基本矛盾として、日本帝国主義と社会主義との矛盾が加わる。日本帝国主義は、1931年(昭和6)の中国東北=満州侵略以来、1937年の日中戦争を経て太平洋戦争に突入し、1945年8月敗北して、連合国に占領され、その「非軍事化、民主化政策」によって、崩壊させられた。 [犬丸義一] 『J・シュンペーター著、都留重人訳『帝国主義と社会階級』(1956・岩波書店)』▽『小山弘健・浅田光輝著『日本帝国主義史』全3巻(1958~60・青木書店)』▽『井汲卓一他編『現代帝国主義講座』(1963・日本評論社)』▽『井上清著『日本帝国主義の形成』(1968・岩波書店)』▽『江口朴郎著『帝国主義の時代』(1969・岩波書店)』▽『J・A・ホブソン著、矢内原忠雄訳『帝国主義論』(岩波文庫)』▽『R・ヒルファディング著、岡崎次郎訳『金融資本論』上下(岩波文庫)』▽『レーニン著、副島種典訳『帝国主義論』(大月書店・国民文庫)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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