Korea - Challenge

Japanese: 朝鮮 - ちょうせん

A region consisting of a peninsula that juts out southeast from the center of the eastern coast of the Asian continent toward the Japanese archipelago, and over 3,300 islands of various sizes. The distance from north to south of the peninsula is 840 km, and the longest distance from east to west, including islands, is 1,200 km. The total area is 220,741 km2, roughly the same as the size of Japan's main island excluding Aomori prefecture. The northern half of the peninsula is divided into North Korea, and the southern half is divided into South Korea (Republic of Korea).

This article describes the natural features of the Korean peninsula, as well as the people and culture that inhabit it. For the two countries that currently make up the Korean peninsula, South Korea and North Korea, please see the respective articles.

For history in general, please refer to the "History of Korea" entry, and for South Korea and North Korea, please refer to the history section of each entry. Similarly, for relations with Japan, please refer to "History of Japan-North Korea Negotiations," "Japan-Korea Relations," "Japan-North Korea Relations," "Relationships between Japan and the Korean Peninsula (After World War II)," and the section on relations with Japan in the South Korea and North Korea entries. Other entries such as "Korean Film," "Korean Theater," "Korean Language," "Korean Dance," "Korean Literature," "Korean People," and "Korean Cuisine" are also recommended.

[Fish pond]

Nature

Name of Korea

The name Joseon literally means "bright morning" and appears in ancient Chinese documents such as the Records of the Grand Historian and the Wei Lue. It is also a familiar name for the country, used for over 500 years during the Joseon Dynasty. The "han" in "Korea" has also been used since ancient times along with "Joseon," as there were three Han states of Mahan, Byeonhan, and Jinhan in the southern region of ancient Korea. "Han" is said to be a transliteration of the Altaic word kkan, meaning "big" or "tall." It is a name that feels familiar, from the ancient Three Han period to the name of the country of Korea today. According to "A Study on the History of Korean Place Names," there are 194 alternative names for the country's name, of which the more commonly used are Keirin, Cheongkyu (both alternative names for Silla), Kuniki (the place where Rose of Sharon blooms), and Sanzenri Kumsukosan (3,000 Korean ri from north to south). The English word Korea is probably derived from the pronunciation of Goryeo.

[Fish pond]

terrain

The geological structure of Korea belongs to the eastern margin of the Late Proterozoic Chinese landmass, which is part of the Great East Asian Tectonic System. The northeastern block is an Upper Paleozoic fold belt of the Sikhodylin geosyncline, and the southeastern region belongs to part of the Mesozoic fold belt of the Circum-Pacific Fold Belt.

In terms of topography, mountains account for 75% of the land, but there are few steep mountain ranges. The landform is late-mature, with higher elevations in the north and lower elevations in the south, and is asymmetrical from east to west.

The most rugged part of Korea is the Hamgyong Mountains in the northeast, which run from northeast to southwest along the east coast. The southeastern slope is steep, while the northwestern slope is gentle. More than 30 volcanoes are connected on the basalt plateau, including Korea's second highest peak, Gwanbobong (2,541m), Tojeongsan (2,201m), and Zhushangbong (2,333m). In the southeast, the Kilju-Myeongcheon Rift Valley is formed, and to the east of it lies the Chilbo Mountains, which are made up of alkaline trachyte and basalt.

The highest peak, Mt. Paektu (2,750m), occupies the center of the lava plateau, but it extends south-southeast to form the Mateonryeong Mountains, forming the vast Baekdu Lava Plateau. This plateau is made of basalt alkaline trachyte that erupted from the Tertiary to early Quaternary periods, and the volume of eruption in Korea alone reached 4,000 cubic kilometers. Volcanic activity created Mt. Duryu (2,309m) and Mt. Chilbo (906m), and became the Baekdu Volcanic Range that crosses the sea and reaches Seonginbong Peak (984m) on Ulleung Island. The Gaema Plateau, known as the "roof of Korea," is a late-adult topography with little undulations and an average altitude of 1,200m. The southern boundary of the Gaema Plateau is the Busenryeong Mountains, and the western boundary is the Nanrim Mountains that run north to south. The Nanrim Mountains form the watershed between the east and west of the country. Further west runs the Jiangnan mountain range, while the Diyuryeong and Myohyang mountain ranges run southwest.

The Yalu River (790.7 km), Korea's largest river, originates at the foot of Mt. Paektu, flows northwest, bordering China, and carves a dissected valley, then flows through a tectonic valley from the middle to the Yellow Sea. This area is rich in hydroelectric potential, and is an important power resource base, with the Supung Dam, Unbong Dam, and hydroelectric power plants on the Chosin River and the Bujeon River. The Tumen River (520.5 km) also originates at the foot of Mt. Paektu, flows east-north, and empties into the Sea of Japan. In the middle reaches, it meanders and indents, dropping sharply, and from Hoeryeong, it widens due to lateral erosion and develops alluvial plains. This basin is a major lignite deposit.

The Taebaek Mountains run along the east coast from the center to the southern tip of the peninsula, forming the backbone of the south. It is a 500-kilometer-long mountain range with a steep eastern slope and a gentle western slope. It is an asymmetrical tilted land mass caused by thrusting. The Yeongseo Plateau on the western slope is a late-mature topography, leaving a low-lying peneplain in the western part of Chungju. The Taebaek Mountains include the world-famous Mount Kumgang (1,638 meters), Mount Seorak (1,708 meters), and Mount Taebaek (1,561 meters). The Charyeong, Noryeong, and Sobaek Mountains, which are branches of the Taebaek Mountains, branch off to the southwest and sink into the south coast and the southwest archipelago, respectively, forming a ria coast.

While the eastern part of the Korean Peninsula is mostly mountainous, the western part is dominated by peneplains and alluvial plains. A typical peneplain is the Pyongyang Peneplain (Laklang Peneplain), which covers an area of about 500 square kilometers and is centered on Ryokpo, south of Pyongyang. The Honam Plain, known as a grain-producing region since ancient times, is made up of the broad alluvial deposits of the Mangyeong River and the Dongjin River and the surrounding hilly plains. These include the Jaeryeong Plain in the downstream area of the Taedong River (431.1 kilometers), the Gimpo Plain in the downstream area of the Han River (514.4 kilometers), the Naepo Plain in the downstream area of the Geum River (401.4 kilometers), and the Gimhae Plain in the downstream area of the Nakdong River.

The rivers that flow through the southern part of the prefecture generally flow through gentle areas, but because their riverbeds are high, they often suffer from flooding during heavy rainfall.

[Fish pond]

climate

The country is characterized by a continental climate, as it is a peninsula that stretches north and south into the sea like a small limb of the Eurasian continent, but the southern coastal areas are influenced by a marine climate.

In winter, the Siberian cold air masses bring continuous sunny days and a dry season with little precipitation, but in summer, the tropical air masses from the Pacific Ocean bring heavy rainfall, making it a humid rainy season.

The annual average temperature is around 10°C. In the northern mountainous regions and the Gaema Plateau, the annual average temperature is below 10°C, but in the central region it is around 10°C and on the southern coast it is 14°C. The warmest place is Jeju Island at 14.6°C, and in Busan and Yeosu the average temperature in January never drops below zero. This is due to the influence of the country's latitudinal position and topographical characteristics, as well as seasonal winds. South Korea is commonly known as a country with three cold days and four warm days, but this is because the strength of continental air masses causes changes in temperature, resulting in the phenomenon of three cold days and four warm days, and is not necessarily cyclical.

Another major influence on the climate is the periodic monsoons. The winter monsoons are caused by high pressure systems that form on the continent and blow as northwesterly winds from October to March, while in summer, humid subtropical marine air masses land from the south between April and August. These are called southeasterly monsoons. These two monsoons cause cold waves in the winter that drop the temperature and bring continuous sunny days, while in summer the temperature rises and the weather becomes hot and brings a lot of rain.

The annual rainfall in Korea is around 1,000 mm. 60% of this is rainfall brought by the southeasterly monsoons in June, July and August, which is the rainy season. The dry winter season receives less than 10% of the annual rainfall. Rainfall during the rainy season is characterized by heavy downpours, sudden showers and irregular rainfall. This can lead to floods and droughts in some years. Areas with heavy rainfall include the South Sea coast, where the rainfall is 1,400 mm, and areas with little rainfall include the upper and middle reaches of the Tumen River in the north, where the rainfall is 500 mm.

[Fish pond]

plant

The plant zone is characterized by a richer vertical structure and more diverse communities than other temperate zones in the Northern Hemisphere. There are approximately 4,200 plant species, including 700 medicinal plants, 700-800 wild plants, 1,100 endemic varieties, and other wild forage plants.

The plant distribution in Korea belongs to the Northeast Asian subregion, and there are many plants in common with Siberia, the northern, northeastern and southern parts of China, and Japan. The plant distribution in Korea is divided into the following four regions.

[Fish pond]

Subarctic coniferous forest

The Gaema Plateau, Hakumo Plateau, and Baekdu Lava Plateau in northern Korea are dominated by fir and spruce communities.

[Fish pond]

Northern temperate broadleaf forest

The area stretches from the southern edge of the Hamgyong and Bujeongyeong mountain ranges to the Southwestern mountain range. The main forests are broadleaf and small-leaved broadleaf forests, including oak, linden, Quercus serrata, and sawtooth oak.

[Fish pond]

Southern temperate broadleaf forest

The area is from the southern part of South Hwanghae Province, the southwestern lowlands, the southern part of the Sobaek Mountains, through the Gimhae Plain to the southeastern part of the country. It is home to coniferous forests of fir, juniper, and Korean pine, and broadleaf forests of oak, Japanese pepper, and red carpinus. Mount Kumgang is home to the endemic species Deutzia japonica, which is the only one species in one genus in Korea, and the Kumgang Choron (a type of flowering plant).

[Fish pond]

Subtropical zone including evergreen broadleaf forest

The remaining areas of the three districts include Jeju Island and Ulleung Island. This is a warm region with a lot of rainfall, and is home to the so-called warm-weather evergreen broad-leaved forests of camellia, Euonymus japonicus, and Euonymus japonicus. The plants of Jeju Island are regularly distributed vertically from the coast to Mt. Hallasan (1,950m). The foothills are home to evergreen broad-leaved forests of subtropical oak and oak, while the mid-mountain zone is home to deciduous forests of red carpinus, carpinus hornbeam, and oak, while the mountain tops are home to large colonies of birch, fir and rhododendron.

Ulleungdo has more than 300 species of plants, of which about 40 are endemic. Beech and Onitaya are endemic, along with lilies (native to the island), bamboo, camellias, rhododendrons, and at the foot of the mountains, dogwood, white alder, and hollyhock trees.

[Fish pond]

animal

Korea is said to have 1,088 species of vertebrates, including 87 species of mammals, 419 species of birds, 27 species of reptiles, 15 species of amphibians, and 522 species of fish. The distribution of animals is divided into the highland subregion (Western Siberia subregion) and the lowland subregion (North China subregion).

[Fish pond]

Highland District

This area lies east of the Nanrim Mountain Range and north of the Bujeonryeong Mountain Range. There are deer such as musk deer and bald deer, as well as goats, and other wild animals such as tigers, wild boars, leopards, and Korean wolves. Tigers could be found near Seoul until the mid-Joseon Dynasty, but are now rare even in Gojisogu. Bird species include pheasants, Korean black grouse, lesser woodpeckers, and Siberian starlings.

[Fish pond]

Lowland District

Except for some mountainous areas, most of the land is lowland and plains. Inhabitants include the Japanese bush warbler, wild boar, red fox, and birds such as the ringed pheasant, Chinese egret, and rock wagtail.

[Fish pond]

Ethnicity and Culture

The formation of the Korean people

They are said to have a 5,000-year history and are a homogenous ethnic group, but when you trace their history, language, and culture, you find many twists and turns.

It is said that people first settled on the Korean Peninsula in the Paleolithic Period (Gulpo-ri, North Hamgyong Province, and Seokjang-ri, South Chungcheong Province), about 500,000 years ago. Although no clear conclusion has been reached, the Korean people are said to be of Altai descent. Altai is the name taken from the Altai Mountains, which lie on the border between China and Mongolia and are partly in the Russian Federation. It is believed that the ancient Korean people were a group that migrated eastward from the Altai region, passing through Manchuria and arriving on the Korean Peninsula.

In ancient Chinese documents, the Dongyi people were the ancient Korean people who lived in the Manchuria region. Later, in the Annals of the Great Ming and Annals of the Emperor Taezu, it states, "Korea is surrounded by mountains and submerged in the sea, so the independent Dongyi people have formed since ancient times. They should not be governed by China, and are free to choose their own religion," recognizing their independence. It is believed that the ancestors of the Dongyi people moved south from the Songhua River and Dongjia River areas, and some of them came to the Korean Peninsula.

Besides the Buyeo, the Dongyi tribes include the Wi, Hak (also written as Emaek), and Han. The Wi settled in the coastal plains of the Songhwa River, Liaohe River, and Dae Liaohe River, but to avoid war, they moved south to the Korean Peninsula, with the Wi along the coast of the Taebaek Mountains and the Hak in the Yeongseo region (Gangwon Province and North Chungcheong Province) to the west. The Buyeo tribe was the most culturally advanced of the Dongyi tribes, and advanced to Nong'an, west of present-day Changchun, and by the 3rd century had 80,000 households, an area of 2,000 ri square, and an established ruling system and class system. King Dongmyeong, who founded Goguryeo, and his second son Onjo, who became king of Baekje, are said to have been members of the Buyeo tribe.

Meanwhile, in the southern part of the Korean peninsula, there used to be the Three Kingdoms of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan, but they were conquered by Baekje, one of the 54 tribes of Mahan, and unified into the Kingdom of Baekje, and by Shiro, one of the 12 tribes of Jinhan, into the Kingdom of Silla (Samguk Sagi). Some of the tribes in the southern region have the custom of tattooing, which is said to be a vestige of the traditions of maritime culture. Linguistically, research into the ancient place names of the Three Kingdoms has led to the theory (Halbert) that the indigenous people of the southern region were not a people who migrated from the continent, but from the Dravidian people of southern India or the Polynesian islands. The legend of the origin of the Silla clan's Sekishi ancestors and the legend of the three clans of Go, Yang, and Bu on Jeju Island also tell of migration from the south. Among the relics of the Neolithic culture, shouldered stone axes and gouged stone axes are said to have belonged to maritime peoples.

[Fish pond]

Physical characteristics

Koreans belong to the Mongoloid race, and are difficult to distinguish from Altaic races in terms of physique. Among the height distributions of the world's ethnic groups, Koreans are on the larger side of the average height range, with relatively slender necks, well-developed deep dorsal muscles, and good posture. Their legs are also long, and the proportions of each part of the body are more balanced than in Westerners. Their heads are brachycephalic, with many unique brachycephalic heads having a short major axis. Their faces are broad, a characteristic of Mongoloids, but are also long, and it is said that their head cavity volume is large and their brain weight is on the heavier side.

[Fish pond]

Primitive religion

In primitive societies, there are two types of religion: animism, which recognizes the existence of spirits, and totemism, which regards ancestors as animals and plants. These primitive religions and rituals were also practiced in primitive societies in Korea.

In the founding myth, Dangun was born under the Dan tree to a bear woman. The births of King Buyeo, King Dongmyeong, the founder of Goguryeo, and King Haekgyosei, the founder of Silla, are egg-laying tales, and are linked to the solar myth of being born under the light of the sun. In Goguryeo, a ritual to worship the heavens called Dongnae was held every October, and in Wi, a ritual to worship the heavens called Mucheon was held, with food, drink, singing, and dancing day and night. In Mahan, after the spring plowing of the fields in May, a ritual was held to worship the gods, and banquets were held and people enjoyed singing and dancing day and night. After the harvest in October, the gods were worshiped, and they continued to sing, dance, and eat. In addition, mountains, rivers, large trees, wind, rain, and clouds were also objects of worship, as they were things that were influenced by the heavens. They also erected large trees (sotte = so-taku) and hung bells on the tops of them as altars to pray to.

Jangseong (chiefs) standing by the roadside or on the borders of counties are male and female pairs, with the male wearing a crown and the words "Great General of the World" inscribed on his torso, and the female having the words "Great (female) General of the Underground." This is a primitive religion with the meaning of indicating a sacred area or expelling demons. Sonandan (castle god altar) is also a primitive religion where many pebbles are piled up on a hill or pass at the entrance to a village, and where people pray for the birth of children, or for good fortune and protection from evil.

[Fish pond]

shamanism

Shamanism is a primitive religious phenomenon that continues to have a great influence today.

In Korea, shamans have three roles: shamanism, medicine, and prophecy. In principle, a mudang (shaman priest) is in charge of all three, but sometimes a blind man called a pansu (pianist) can be the prophet. Shamanism is called kut or puri, and in this ritual, a mudang conveys the will of the gods to humans, a medicine shaman expels evil spirits through offerings and prayers, and a prophet predicts the future good and bad luck through intuition and divination.

Shamanism is still popular among the general public today, but successive dynasties have favored and protected them, and at times have expelled them. During the Silla period, the second king, King Namhae, was a shaman who also became king, and during the Goryeo period, shamanism spread to the daily lives of the royal family and general public, and was even in charge of medical treatment and national rain-making ceremonies. During the Yi dynasty, a shaman office was established exclusively for the government. However, mudangs bewitched the people, and some homes went bankrupt due to their fanaticism. The government was forced to banish mudangs from the city walls.

[Fish pond]

Buddhism

Korean Buddhism is not a simple extension of Indian or Chinese Buddhism, but has developed in a unique way, blending into the culture and society of the Korean Peninsula.

Of the three kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla, Goguryeo was the first to adopt Buddhism, officially accepting the monk Sundo, along with Buddhist statues and sutras, sent by Former Qin King Bugyeom in the second year of King Sosurim's reign (372), which marked the beginning of Korean Buddhism. Buddhism was later introduced to Baekje in the first year of King Chinryu's reign (384) and to Silla in the first year of King Nulgi's reign (417), but it was in the fifth year of King Jinheung's reign (544) that Silla established its foundations as a Buddhist state. In that year, Heungryunsa Temple was founded, and the king guaranteed in national law the freedom of citizens to become monks and nuns. Temples such as Hwangryongsa Temple, Gionsa Temple, and Jissansa Temple were subsequently founded. During the Unified Silla period, Buddhism flourished and developed further, becoming the dominant ideology and playing a major role in society and culture. Temples were originally built around the capital city, but after Unified Silla, private temples were also built in various provinces. The temple economy also became more firmly established through donations, and they came to own large amounts of farmland. Many outstanding monks, including Wonhyo, produced many Buddhist scriptures. Buddhist culture reached its peak and blossomed during the reign of King Gyeongdeok (742-764). Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto in Mt. Toham in Gyeongju are representative examples of temple architecture, and the intricate techniques and sense of line in the Buddhist sculptures are the pinnacle of Silla art.

During the Goryeo dynasty, Buddhism became the state religion, and people practiced Buddhism, but also implemented a policy of revering Confucianism. Seongjong (reigned 982-997) respected Confucianism and abolished Buddhist ceremonies such as the Nendanghoe and the Happanhoe, but under Hyeonjong (reigned 1009-31), he revived the Nendanghoe and Happanhoe, which were national policies in the Ten Articles of Taejo Wanggeon's Hunyeo. The former celebrates the birthday of Buddha on April 8th with lanterns, and the latter is a large-scale national festival with singing and dancing to honor local gods, held in Seogyeong (Pyongyang) in October and in Junggyeong (Kaesong) in November. In the middle of the Goryeo dynasty, preferential treatment was given to monks, who became extremely tyrannical towards the people and were denounced by the people. The folk mask play "Bongsan Talchum" satirizes the monks of this time. However, when the Mongol army invaded, the capital was moved from Kaesong to Ganghwa Island and the woodblock printing of the Goryeo version of the Tripitaka was completed, which has been preserved to this day as a valuable national cultural heritage.

[Fish pond]

Confucianism

Like Buddhism, Confucianism is said to have been introduced to Korea in the second year of the reign of King Sojurim of Goguryeo, but it was during the Joseon Dynasty that Confucianism became the national policy and flourished.

According to Zhu Xi's philosophy, there is a distinction between men and women, and a hierarchy of seniority and youth, and benevolence is regarded as an ideal that applies to all morality, establishing a kind of political ethics with the goals of cultivating oneself, regulating the family, governing the country, and bringing peace to the world.

The things that were cultivated during the 500-plus years of the Joseon Dynasty, which had Confucianism as its governing principle, continue to dominate the spiritual life of Koreans to this day, including ceremonial rites according to the Neo-Confucian customs, as well as respect for human ethics and integrity.

[Fish pond]

Christianity

Christianity began when Reverend Thomas of the London Missionary Society of England boarded the Sherman and was martyred in Pyongyang in September 1869. Although various missionary activities took place after Thomas' martyrdom, legal missionary work did not begin until 1882, when the Treaty of Amity between the United States and Korea was concluded.

The translation of the Bible into Korean was also progressing, and missionary work progressed, but because the teachings were contrary to the state religion of Confucianism, many missionaries and believers were martyred due to the policy of expulsion. Protestantism began when HG Underwood and HD Appenzeller came to Korea in 1885. They founded the first Presbyterian Church, Shinmunnae Church, in September 1887, and the first Methodist Church, Jeongdong Church, in October of the same year. Since then, it has expanded to Busan, Daegu, Pyongyang, and Uiju. By 1896, it had 8,000 believers, and the foundation for Christian missionary work was solidified. At the same time as missionary work, medical and educational projects also progressed, and it was Underwood and Pastor Appenzeller who built the foundation of today's Yonsei University.

Catholicism also began with the infiltration of priests into the city, but in 1866 a major crackdown was launched, resulting in the deaths of over 10,000 of the 25,000 believers. After the signing of the Treaty of Amity between Korea and France in 1868, restrictions were eased, and Yakhyun Catholic Church was built on a hill overlooking Seoul in 1893, followed by Myeongdong Cathedral in 1898. After that, three dioceses were established: Daegu and Wonsan.

[Fish pond]

Cheon Dooism

Cheondogyo, an ethnic religion, is a new nationalistic religion of the Anmin sect, which succeeded Donghak, founded by Choi Je-gu in 1860. It was founded as Donghak in opposition to the Western religion (Christianity), centering on the three religions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, and incorporating Catholicism.

Donghak, which began in Yongdam, North Gyeongsang Province, was propagated throughout the country under the second head priest, Choi Sihyung. However, in 1894, in response to the government's repressive and mismanagement policies against Donghak, a peasant rebellion (the Gabo Peasant War) was started by Jeon Bongjun, a follower in Gobu, North Jeolla Province. Under the banner of supporting the country and keeping the people safe, the revolt called for reforms to the social and national systems, and was a large-scale one in which peasants from the Honam and Yeongnam regions also participated, but it ended in failure due to the intervention of foreign powers such as Japan. Although it could not avoid stagnation for a time, the sect still has many followers today.

Other emerging religions include the Nanhak, Sozan, Dangun, Kakusei, Suionkyo, Sen Dokyo, and Mirokukyo.

[Fish pond]

Folklore

In the Korean Peninsula, tribes of Buyeo descent moved south and conquered the indigenous tribes, establishing the nations of Silla and Buyeo. Relics thought to belong to a maritime people, such as hollowed-out stone axes and shouldered stone axes, have been excavated from ruins left by the indigenous people, and linguistically, they retain vocabulary that seems to be remnants of southern origins, so it can be said that the indigenous people were a people with a maritime culture. However, what remains of their folk customs are the legacy of northern primitive religion and culture, and by the time of the Joseon Dynasty, most of their folk customs were influenced by Chinese culture.

The Changsung and Sonandan are primitive religions and folk customs of the north. These totemist and animistic practices are also common to the Tungusic and Mongolian peoples, and still remain to a small extent today.

The most widely handed down folk customs are annual events. There are events that have been handed down until December, such as the New Year's tea ceremony (a ritual for ancestors), breakfast with zoni on New Year's Day, pasting spring inscriptions such as "Sweep the earth, gold comes out" and "Open the gate, good fortune comes" on the main gate on the first day of spring, visiting graves in March, the lantern festival on April 8th, Buddha's birthday, and Gune (a swing with a long rope) on Dano in May, and they are all covered in Hong Seok-mo's "Dongguk Saijiki". As the preface to the saijiki cites comparisons between these folk customs and the "Jingchu Saijiki" of the Chu state in southern China, we can see the origins of Korean folk customs.

According to Confucianism, the separation of men and women was clear, but at home, women were exclusively in the anbang (inner chamber) and men were exclusively in the sarangbang (sarang room). Even in annual events, Noltigi (board games), Dalmaji (wolhyung), and Gune were women's games, and were said to be an opportunity for women's liberation in feudal society.

Old folk customs that still exist today are Sipchansaeng (the rite of ten years of life) and Tongsangrae (the rite of the eastern bed). Sipchansaeng is a kind of folk custom of respecting the elderly, in which images of longevity such as the sun, mountains, water, stones, clouds, pine trees, the grass of immortality, turtles, cranes, and deer are painted or embroidered and hung on the walls, and is a kind of animism. Tongsangrae is a custom in which after the wedding, while the groom is staying at the bride's house, the bride's relatives, young people from the village, and the groom's friends tie up the groom or hang him by his feet and rape him, demanding food and drink from the bride's house.

The customs of ancient Korea regarding food, clothing and shelter also remain to this day. The everyday clothing worn by Koreans, such as the jeogori (undergarment), chima (skirt), and turmagi (circumcised garment), are northern clothing, as the ancient Korean people lived in the subarctic zone. Houses are unique to Korea, suited to its climate and geography, and the ondol (warm floor) was also used by the Jurchens of Manchuria, although in a different style. Weddings, funerals and other ceremonies are based on the Zhu Xi family rites.

[Fish pond]

Language and script

Korean is the language of about 50 million Koreans living on the Korean Peninsula and the surrounding islands, as well as in areas where Koreans live in large numbers outside the peninsula (Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin Province, China, Los Angeles, USA, etc.). Korean is rich in emotional expressions.

As with the Korean people, there is no clear conclusion, but it is said that Korean belongs to the Altaic language family. It originated in the Altai Mountains, moved eastward to become Mongolian and Tungusic, and then moved further south to become Korean. The three groups of Altaic languages, Turkish, Mongolian, and Tungusic, have vowel harmony in structure, do not use prepositions but postpositional particles, and the meaning can change depending on the length of the accent sound. It has agglutinative properties, just like Japanese.

Ancient Korean languages include the northern Korean languages of the Buyeo people in northwestern Manchuria, the Okjo people in the coastal areas of South and North Hamgyong Province, and the Emaek people across Gangwon Province, the Jinhan language of the eastern coast of South and North Gyeongsang Province, the Byeonhan language based in the lower reaches of the Nakdong River, and the southern Korean language of the Mahan people across Chungcheong Province, South Jeolla Province, and North Korea. The "Biography of Baekje" in the "Book of Liang" states, "Their language and clothing are now almost the same as those of Goguryeo," and the "Biography of Byeonjin" in the "Records of the Three Kingdoms" states, "Byeonjin coexisted with Jinhan...their language and customs are similar," pointing out the similarities. This northern ethnic group headed south to the Korean Peninsula and its foundations were limited to the peninsula, and the difference in language became narrower, and after Silla unified the three countries, unified Korean language was formed, mainly Silla.

In ancient Korea, Chinese characters were imported and used early as a result of language contact with Chinese people. Korean is only spoken words, and only kanji were allowed to keep records. In other words, it was used in two languages: literary kanji and colloquial Korean. As a result, a large number of kanji elements became popular in Korean, so today's Korean language is a huge number of kanji words.

Since Goguryeo, efforts have been made to express one's own Japanese language through kanji. One of these was the Silla period. It is said to be the inventive idea of Sesou in the 7th century, and Korean was written using the sounds and incentives of the kanji. This inventive idea was used throughout the Goryeo and the Joseon Dynasty until the 19th century. In 1443, during the Joseon Sejong (Sesou), the creation of the phonetic letters of the Korean language and letters of today's Korean language and letters that were consistent with words were completed.

[Fish pond]

"Nakamura Eitaka, Joseon: Customs, Ethnicity, and Traditions" (1951, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Choi Nam-san, translated by Soma Qing, "Question of Common Sense of Korea" (1965, Sokō Shobo)" ▽ "Kim Shigeha, "Cloth and Culture of Korea" (1976, Rokukō Publishing)" ▽ "Akiba Takashi, "Korean Folklore" (1980, Machi Publishing)" ▽ "Kamata Shigeo, "Temples and History of Korean Buddhism" (1980, Dafalankaku)" ▽ "Kajii Shu, "Thinking about Korean Language" (1980, Lunggye Shosha)" ▽ "Yoongtang, "The Source of Korean Folklore Culture" (1982, Doseisha)" ▽ "Yoongtang, "New Folklore" by Chongtang (1984, Sanichi Shobo)" ▽ "The Joseon Seasonal Chronicle" (Heibonsha, Toyo Bunko)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

アジア大陸の東岸の中央部から南東方向の日本列島へ突き出た半島部と大小3300余の島嶼(とうしょ)からなる地域。半島部の南北間距離は840キロメートル、東西間の最長距離は島を含めて1200キロメートルである。総面積は22万0741平方キロメートルで、日本の本州から青森県を除いた大きさとほぼ同じである。半島部の北半部は北朝鮮、南半部は韓国（大韓民国）に分かれている。

　本項目では朝鮮半島の自然の特色、およびそこにすむ民族とその文化について述べる。現在、朝鮮半島にある二つの国、韓国および北朝鮮については、それぞれの項目を参照のこと。

　歴史は、朝鮮全般については「朝鮮史」の項目を、韓国および北朝鮮については、それぞれの項目の歴史のパートを参照されたい。同様に、日本との関係については「日朝交渉史」「日韓関係」「日朝関係」「日本と朝鮮半島との関係（第二次世界大戦後）」、および韓国、北朝鮮の項目のなかの日本との関係のパートを参照されたい。そのほか「朝鮮映画」「朝鮮演劇」「朝鮮語」「朝鮮舞踊」「朝鮮文学」「朝鮮民族」「朝鮮料理」などの項目もあわせて読まれたい。

［魚　塘］

自然

朝鮮の呼称

朝鮮の名は字のとおり「鮮(あざ)やかな朝」の意で、中国の古い文献『史記』や『魏略(ぎりゃく)』などに登場している。また李氏朝鮮(りしちょうせん)王朝500余年間も使われたなじみ深い国名である。「韓国」の韓も、古代朝鮮の南部地方に馬韓(ばかん)、弁韓(べんかん)、辰韓(しんかん)の三韓があったように、「朝鮮」とともに古代から使われていた。「韓」はアルタイ語のkkanの音写といわれ「大きい」「高い」の意をもつ。古代の三韓時代やいまの韓国の国名など身近に感じる名である。国名の異称として『韓国地名沿革考』によると194もあり、そのうち一般化されたのは雞林(けいりん)、青丘（ともに新羅(しらぎ)の別称）、槿域(くんいき)（ムクゲが咲く所）、三千里錦繍江(きんしゅうこう)山（南北が3000朝鮮里）などである。英語のKoreaは高麗(こうらい)の発音Koryoからとったものであろう。

［魚　塘］

地形

朝鮮の地体構造は、東部アジア大構造体の一部分である後期原生代の中国陸塊の東側縁辺部に属し、北東地塊はシホデアリン地向斜帯の上部古生代褶曲(しゅうきょく)帯であり、南東地域は環太平洋褶曲帯の中生代褶曲帯の一部地域に属している。

　地形的特徴は、山地が全土の75％を占めているが、峻厳(しゅんげん)な山地は少なく、晩壮年地形を呈していて、北高南低であり、また東西が非対称性を示している。

　朝鮮でもっとも高峻な地形をなしているのは北東部の咸鏡山脈(かんきょうさんみゃく)で、東海岸に沿いながら北東から南西方向に走っている。南東斜面は急傾斜をなし、北西斜面は緩やかである。朝鮮第二の高峰冠帽峰(かんぼうほう)（2541メートル）をはじめ渡正山（2201メートル）、机上峰（2333メートル）など30余の火山が玄武岩台地上に連なっている。南東部には吉州(きっしゅう)・明川地溝帯が形成されているが、その東側にアルカリ粗面岩と玄武岩からなる七宝山塊がある。

　最高峰白頭山（2750メートル）は溶岩台地の中心を占めているが、南南東へ延びて摩天嶺山脈(まてんれいさんみゃく)となり、広大な白頭溶岩台地を形成している。この台地は第三紀から第四紀初めにかけて噴出した玄武岩アルカリ粗面岩で、噴出量は朝鮮だけでも4000立方キロメートルに達している。火山活動は、頭流山（2309メートル）、七宝山（906メートル）をつくり、海を渡って南下し、鬱陵島(うつりょうとう)の聖人峰（984メートル）に達する白頭火山脈となった。「朝鮮の屋根」といわれる蓋馬高原(かいまこうげん)は起伏量の少ない晩壮年期の地形で平均高度1200メートルである。蓋馬高原の南界は赴戦嶺(ふせんれい)山脈、西界は北～南に走る狼林(ろうりん)山脈である。狼林山脈は東西間の分水界をなしている。さらに西方へ江南、南西方向には狄踰嶺(てきゆれい)、妙香(みょうこう)の支脈が走っている。

　白頭山麓(ろく)に発する朝鮮第一の大河鴨緑江(おうりょくこう)（790.7キロメートル）は、中国と国境を界し北西流し、開析谷を刻みながら、中江から黄海に向かっては構造谷を流れている。この地域は包蔵水力の豊富な所であり、水豊ダム、雲峰ダムをはじめ、長津江、赴戦江系の水力発電など重要な動力資源基地である。また豆満江(とまんこう)（520.5キロメートル）も白頭山麓より発し、東―北流して日本海に注ぐが、中流は嵌入(かんにゅう)蛇行しながら急下し、会寧(かいねい)からは側侵削剥(さくはく)により川幅を広め沖積地を展開している。この流域は代表的な褐炭埋蔵地である。

　半島中部から南端にかけて東海岸沿いに走っているのが太白山脈で、南部の脊梁(せきりょう)をなしている。500キロメートルの長い山地で、東斜面は急傾斜をなし、西斜面は緩やかである。これは衝上運動による東西非対称の傾動地塊である。西斜面の嶺西高原は晩壮年期の地形で、忠州西部には低位準平原面を残している。太白山脈中には世界的な名山金剛山(こんごうさん)（1638メートル）をはじめ雪岳山（1708メートル）、太白山（1561メートル）などを連ねている。太白山脈の支脈である車嶺(しゃれい)・蘆嶺(ろれい)・小白山脈が南西に分かれて、それぞれ南海岸や南西の多島海に没しリアス式海岸を形成している。

　朝鮮半島の東部がほとんど山地地形であるのに反し、西部は準平原や沖積平野の優勢な地域である。典型的な準平原は平壌南方の力浦を中心とする約500平方キロメートルに達する平壌準平原（楽浪(らくろう)準平原）である。古来から穀倉地帯といわれる湖南平野は万傾江と東津江の広い沖積層と周辺の丘陵性平野からなっている。大同江（431.1キロメートル）下流地域の載寧(さいねい)平野、漢江（514.4キロメートル）下流の金浦平野、錦江(きんこう)（401.4キロメートル）下流の内浦平野、洛東江(らくとうこう)下流の金海平野がある。

　南部を流れる河川はおおむね緩やかな地帯を流れるが、河床が高いので集中豪雨のときは水害を被ることが多い。

［魚　塘］

気候

気候の特徴は、ユーラシア大陸の小肢のように海中に南北に延びた半島なので、おおむね大陸性気候の支配下にあるが、南部の海岸地域は海洋性気候の影響を受けている。

　冬はシベリア寒気団によって晴れた日が続き、降水量の少ない乾期であるが、夏は太平洋の熱帯性気団の波及により多量の雨量をもたらし、いわば湿潤な雨期である。

　年平均気温は10℃内外である。北部の山岳地帯や蓋馬高原の年平均気温は10℃以下であるが、中央部は10℃内外、南海岸は14℃で、最暖地は済州島(さいしゅうとう)の14.6℃、釜山(ふざん)、麗水(れいすい)も1月の平均気温が零下に下がることはない。これは緯度上の位置や地形上の特性からくる影響と、季節風によってである。通俗的に三寒四温の国といわれているが、これは、大陸気団の強弱により気温が変化をきたし、三寒四温の現象が現れるもので、かならずしも周期的なものではない。

　気候にもう一つ大きい影響力をもつものは、周期的な季節風である。冬季間の季節風は10月から3月にかけて大陸に発生した高気圧が北西風となって吹き、夏季は4月から8月にかけて南方から湿気の多い亜熱帯海洋性気団が上陸する。南東季節風である。両季節風によって、冬は寒波で気温が下がって晴れた日が続き、夏は気温が上昇し暑く、雨を多く降らせている。

　朝鮮の年降水量は1000ミリメートル内外である。この60％は雨期である6、7、8月の南東季節風がもたらす降雨である。乾期の冬は年降水量の10％にも満たない。雨期の降雨の特徴は豪雨的で驟雨(しゅうう)性を帯び不規則である。そのため年によっては洪水や干魃(かんばつ)を招いている。多雨地域は南海沿岸地方の1400ミリメートル、寡雨地域は北部の豆満江上・中流の500ミリメートルである。

［魚　塘］

植物

植物帯は、北半球の同じ温帯地域に位置する他の地域より縦的構成が豊富で、多様な群落を形成しているのが特徴である。植物の種は約4200余種で薬用植物700余種、山菜類700～800種、特産変種1100余種、その他に野性飼料植物などがある。

　植物分布は東北アジア亜区に属し、シベリア、中国の北部、東北部、南部、日本と共通するものが多い。朝鮮における植物分布区は次の4区に分けられている。

［魚　塘］

亜寒帯針葉樹林区

朝鮮北部の蓋馬高原、白茂(はくも)高原、白頭溶岩台地。モミ、エゾマツが優勢な群落をなしている。

［魚　塘］

温帯北部闊葉樹林区

咸鏡山脈と赴戦嶺山脈の南縁部から西南山地に至る地帯。おもな群落は小葉闊葉(かつよう)樹林、コナラ、シナノキ、アベマキ、クヌギなどである。

［魚　塘］

温帯南部闊葉樹林区

黄海南道南部、西南低地帯、小白山脈南部から金海平野を経て東南地帯に至る地域。モミ、ネズ、チョウセンマツの針葉樹林と、コナラ、サンショウ、アカシデなどの闊葉樹林である。金剛山には朝鮮で1属1種しかない特産種コゴメウツギと金剛チョロン（ハナブサソウ）がある。

［魚　塘］

常緑闊葉樹林を含めた亜熱帯区

3地区の残りの全地域で、済州島、鬱陵島を含む。雨量も多く温暖な地域で、ツバキ、ヒサカキ、マサキなど、いわゆる暖帯照葉樹林を形成している。済州島植物は海岸から漢挐(かんな)山（1950メートル）に向けて垂直に規則正しく分布している。山麓帯には亜熱帯のアカガシ、アラカシなど常緑闊葉樹林、中腹帯はアカシデ、イヌシデ、コナラなどの落葉樹林、山上地帯はダケカンバ、シラベとゲンカイツツジの大群落がある。

　鬱陵島は300余種中特産植物40余種である。ブナ、オニイタヤは特産植物で、ユリ（原産地）、ササ、ツバキ、シャクナゲと、山麓にはイヌグス、シロダモ、モチノキなどがある。

［魚　塘］

動物

朝鮮の動物は脊椎(せきつい)動物1088種で、哺乳(ほにゅう)類87種、鳥類419種、爬虫(はちゅう)類27種、両生類15種、魚類522種といわれる。動物の分布は高地小区（西シベリア亜地帯）と低地小区（北中国亜地帯）に分けている。

［魚　塘］

高地小区

狼林山脈以東と赴戦嶺山脈以北地域である。ジャコウジカ、ハクトウサンシカのシカ類とヤギがおり、トラ、イノシシ、ヒョウ、ヌクテ（コウライオオカミ）などの猛獣類がいる。トラは李朝中期までソウル近辺にも出てきたが、いまは高地小区でも数少ない。鳥類ではキジ、チョウセンクロライチョウ、コアカゲラ、シベリアムクドリなどがある。

［魚　塘］

低地小区

一部の山地帯を除いてはほとんど低山地や平野地帯である。アナグノロ、イノシシ、アカギツネなどと、鳥類ではコウライキジ、カラシラサギ、イワミセキレイなどがいる。

［魚　塘］

民族と文化

朝鮮民族の形成

5000年の歴史と単一民族といわれているが、その歴史や言語、文化の跡をたどってみると、いろいろな紆余曲折(うよきょくせつ)がある。

　朝鮮半島に人が住み着いたのは旧石器時代（咸鏡(かんきょう)北道屈浦里、忠清南道石壮里遺跡）で、約50万年前といわれる。明確な結論は出ていないが、朝鮮民族はアルタイ系といわれている。アルタイとは、中国とモンゴルの国境にあり、ロシア連邦に一部かかるのアルタイ山脈からとった名であるが、古代朝鮮族は、アルタイ地方から東方へ移動した一派が満州を経て朝鮮半島に到達したものと推定されている。

　中国の古い文献で東夷(とうい)族とよばれたのは、満州地方に住んでいた古代朝鮮族をさしたものである。時代は下るが『大明実録』「太祖実録」には「朝鮮は山でふさがれ海に没しているので、昔から独自な東夷族を形成している。中国で治めるべきでなく、声教は彼らの自由である」とあり、自立を認めている。東夷族の祖先が松花江(しょうかこう)、冬佳江周辺から南下し、一部は朝鮮半島へきたものと思われる。

　東夷族には夫余(ふよ)族のほかに濊(わい)、貊(はく)（穢貊とも記載される）、韓族がいる。濊族は松花江、遼河(りょうが)、大遼河の沿岸平野が定着地であったが、戦乱を避けて朝鮮半島に南下し、太白山脈の海岸沿いには濊族、西方の嶺西地方（江原道、忠清北道）には貊族が進出している。東夷族の部族のなかでもっとも文化が進んでいたのは夫余族で、いまの長春西方の農安に進出し、3世紀ころには戸数8万、2000里四方を領有し、支配体制や身分制度も確立していたという。高句麗(こうくり)を創建した東明王とその第2子で百済(くだら)王になった温祚(おんそ)も夫余族の一員であったといわれる。

　一方、朝鮮半島の南部には以前から馬韓(ばかん)、辰韓(しんかん)、弁韓(べんかん)の三韓があったが、馬韓の54部族中「伯済(はくさい)」に制覇され百済国に、辰韓の12部族中「斯廬(しろ)」によって新羅(しらぎ)国に統一された（『三国史記』）。これら南部地方の部族のなかには文身（いれずみ）の習俗があり、海洋文化の伝統の名残(なごり)であるといわれる。また言語学的にも三韓地方の古地名の研究から、南部の先住民は大陸より移動した民族でなく南インドのドラビダ系またはポリネシア諸島から移住したものとの説（ハルバート）がある。新羅の昔氏(せきし)始祖起源伝承や済州島の高・梁・夫三姓氏の伝説も南方からの移動を物語るものである。また新石器文化の遺物のうち有肩石斧(ゆうけんせきふ)、抉入(えぐりいり)石斧は海洋民族のものといわれている。

［魚　塘］

身体的特徴

朝鮮族はモンゴロイドに属しており、形質的にはアルタイ系諸族とは区別しにくい。世界諸民族の身長分布のうち、中等大身長のうち大きいほうで、首が比較的細く、背側深層筋群が発達しており姿勢が正しい。また下肢が長く身体各部の比率配分が、欧米人に比べて均衡がとれている。頭部は短頭で、長径の短い特異な短頭が多い。顔はモンゴロイドの特徴である広顔だが、長顔でもあり、頭腔(とうくう)容積も大きく脳重も重いほうであるといわれている。

［魚　塘］

原始宗教

原始社会における宗教には、霊魂を認めるアニミズムや呪術(じゅじゅつ)と、祖先を動植物と考えるトーテミズムがある。朝鮮における原始社会でもこれらの原始宗教や儀式が行われていた。

　開国神話での檀君(だんくん)は、熊女を母に檀樹下で生まれたといわれる。夫余王や高句麗開祖の東明王や新羅開祖の赫居世(かくきょせい)誕生については卵生説話で、太陽に照らされて生んだという太陽神話に結び付いている。また高句麗では毎年10月、東盟という祭天儀式を行い、濊でも舞天という祭天を行い、昼夜飲食歌舞をしていた。また馬韓では5月、畑作の春耕が終わり神を祭祀(さいし)して、昼夜酒宴を開き歌舞を楽しみ、10月に収穫が終わったあとも神を祀(まつ)って歌舞飲食した。このほか山川、大木や風、雨、雲なども天に左右されるものとして、信仰の対象であった。また大木を立て（ソッテ＝蘇塗）、その木先に鈴をかけて神壇として祈っていた。

　路傍や郡界に立っているチャンスン（長）は、男女一対で、男は頭部に冠をかぶり胴体に「天下大将軍」と刻み込み、女は「地下大（女）将軍」と書いたのがある。これは神域表示や逐鬼の意をもつ原始宗教である。ソナンダン（城隍壇）も村の入口の小高い所か峠に小石をたくさん積んであるもので、子供が生まれるよう祈願したり、福を招き厄除(やくよ)けを祈る原始宗教である。

［魚　塘］

シャーマニズム

原始的宗教現象として今日も大きな影響力をもつものはシャーマニズムである。

　朝鮮におけるシャーマン（巫覡(ふげき)）は巫祭、医巫、予言者の三つの職能があり、原則としてムーダン（巫堂）がそのすべてをつかさどるが、予言者にはパンス（判数）という男の盲人がなる場合もある。巫祭のことをクッまたプリというが、この儀式でムーダンが神の意志を人間に伝達し、医巫は祭供と祈祷(きとう)によって悪霊を駆逐するものであり、予言者は直感と卜筮(ぼくぜい)で未来の吉凶を予言する役である。

　巫俗信仰はいまも民間で盛んであるが、歴代王朝でも厚遇保護したり、あるときには排斥もした。新羅時代は2代王南解王が巫者で王を兼ね、高麗(こうらい)時代は巫俗信仰が王室や民間の生活面に広がり、治病や国家的な祈雨祭もつかさどっていた。李朝(りちょう)時代は政府専用の巫庁を置いた。しかしムーダンは民衆を眩惑(げんわく)し、狂信のあまり破産する民家も出た。政府はやむなくムーダンを城外に追放したことがある。

［魚　塘］

仏教

朝鮮の仏教はインドや中国仏教の単純な延長ではなく、朝鮮半島の風土と社会に溶け込んだ独特な発展をしている。

　高句麗、百済、新羅の三国のうちいちばん早く仏教を取り入れたのは高句麗で、小獣林王の2年（372）に前秦(しん)王符堅(ふけん)が派遣した僧順道と仏像・経文を公的に受け入れ、それが朝鮮仏教の出発点となった。その後、百済は枕流(ちんりゅう)王の1年（384）に、新羅は訥祇(とつぎ)王の1年（417）に伝来しているが、仏教国家として基盤を整えたのは新羅の真興王5年（544）である。その年興輪寺が創建され、王は国民が出家して僧尼になる自由を国法で保障した。その後、皇竜寺、祇園(ぎおん)寺、実際寺などの寺院が創建された。統一新羅時代に入ってからの仏教はいっそう隆盛発展して支配的な思想になり、社会・文化的にも大きな役割を果たした。寺院は都城中心に建てられていたが、統一新羅以後は個人的な寺院が地方各地にも建てられた。また寺院経済も施納財産によって経済的基盤が強固になり、多くの田畑を保有するようになった。また元暁(がんぎょう)をはじめとする傑出した高僧が輩出し、仏典の著述も多かった。仏教文化が頂点に達し開花したのは景徳王代（742～764）である。慶州の吐含(とがん)山の仏国寺と石窟庵(せっくつあん)は寺院建築の代表的なものであり、仏像彫刻の精緻(せいち)な手法と線感覚は新羅美術の粋である。

　高麗時代も仏教が国教になり、仏教を信仰していたが、崇儒政策を併用していた。成宗（在位982～997）は儒教を尊び、燃燈(ねんとう)会、八関会などの仏教儀式を廃したが、顕宗(けんそう)（在位1009～31）のとき太祖王建の訓要10条の国是になっていた燃燈会、八関会を復活した。前者は4月8日釈迦(しゃか)生誕日を燃燈で祝い、後者は10月西京（平壌(へいじょう)）、11月中京（開城）で土俗神に対する祭祀で、歌舞を伴う国をあげての大祭である。高麗中葉には僧侶(そうりょ)を優遇した結果、僧侶が民衆に横暴を極め人民の糾弾を受けた。民俗仮面劇『鳳山(ほうざん)タルチュム』はこのときの僧侶を風刺した内容である。しかしモンゴル軍襲来のとき、首都を開城から江華島に遷都させながら『高麗版大蔵経』の木版を完成させ、今日に残して貴重な民族文化遺産になった。

［魚　塘］

儒教

儒教が朝鮮へ伝来したのは仏教と同じく高句麗の小獣林王の2年といわれるが、儒教が国是になり開花したのは李朝時代である。

　朱子学によって男女有別、長幼有序の上下の身分秩序をたて、仁をもってすべての道徳に通じる理念とし、修身、斉家、治国、平天下を目標にした一種の政治倫理の樹立である。

　儒教を統治理念とした李朝500余年間に培われたものは、朱子家礼による冠婚葬祭をはじめ、人倫道徳や清廉節義の尊重など、朝鮮人の精神生活を今日まで大きく支配している。

［魚　塘］

キリスト教

キリスト教は、1869年9月イギリスのロンドン宣教会トーマス牧師が、シャーマン号に乗り込み平壌で殉教したのが開教の始まりである。トーマス殉教以来いろいろの布教活動はあったが、合法的な宣教開始は、1882年、アメリカと朝米修好条約を締結してからである。

　聖書の朝鮮語訳も進み布教が進んだが、国教の儒教と背反する教旨から斥邪政策によって、宣教師や信者に多くの殉教者を出した。改新教（プロテスタント）は、アンダーウッドH. G. UnderwoodやアペンセラーH. D. Appenzellerらが1885年に来朝して始まった。そして彼らによって87年9月最初の長老教（プレスビテリアン）新門内教会が、同年10月には最初の監理教（メソジスト）の貞洞教会が発足した。以後、釜山(ふざん)、大邱(たいきゅう)、平壌、義州へ拡大されていった。そして1896年には信者8000人を擁し、キリスト教の布教の基盤が固まった。布教と同時に医療・教育事業も進み、今日の延世(えんせい)大学の土台をつくったのはアンダーウッドやアペンセラー牧師らである。

　天主教（カトリック）も神父の潜入布教から始まったが、1866年の大弾圧により2万5000人の信徒中1万余人が犠牲になった。1868年朝仏修好条約締結以後緩和され、93年ソウル市を見下ろす丘の上に薬峴(やくけん)天主教堂、98年には明洞大聖堂がつくられた。その後、大邱、元山と三教区を置いた。

［魚　塘］

天道教

民族宗教である天道教は、1860年崔済愚(さいせいぐ)によって創立された東学を継承した、輔国(ほこく)安民の宗旨の民族主義新興宗教で、西学の宗教（キリスト教）に対抗しての東学とし、儒、仏、道の三教を中心に、天主教を加味して創設したものである。

　慶尚北道竜潭(りゅうたん)で始まった東学は、第2世崔時亨(じこう)のとき全国に布教された。しかし東学に対する政府の弾圧政策と悪政に対して、1894年全羅北道古阜(こふ)の信徒全琫準(ぜんほうじゅん)によって引き起こされた農民反乱（甲午農民戦争）は、輔国安民の旗印に社会制度と国家体制の改革を求めた一揆(いっき)で、湖南地方や嶺南地方の農民も加担した大規模のものであったが、日本などの外国勢力の干渉により失敗に帰した。一時沈滞を免れえなかったが、いまも多くの信徒を擁している。

　このほかの新興宗教として南学系、甑山(そうざん)系、檀君系、覚世系、水雲教、仙道教、弥勒(みろく)教などがある。

［魚　塘］

民俗

朝鮮半島では夫余系の種族が南下して先住部族を制圧して新羅や夫余の国を建設した。先住民族の残した遺跡からは抉入(えぐりいり)石斧、有肩石斧のような海洋民族のものと思われる遺物が出土しており、言語学的にも南方系の名残とも思われる語彙(ごい)が残されていることから、先住民族は海洋文化系の民族であるといえる。しかし、民俗習慣として残っているものは北方系の原始宗教や文化の遺産であり、李朝時代に入ってはほとんど中国文化の影響による民俗である。

　チャンスンやソナンダンは、北方系の原始宗教であり民俗である。これらのトーテミズムやアニミズムは、ツングース人やモンゴル人にも共通のもので、現在もわずかではあるが残存している。

　民俗習慣でもっとも広範に今日まで伝承されているのは年中行事である。正月の茶礼（祖先に対する祭祀）、元日の雑煮の朝食、立春の日大門に「掃地黄金出」「開門万福来」などの春帖(しゅんちょう)字を貼(は)り、3月の寒食の墓参り、4月8日釈迦(しゃか)生誕日の燃燈会、5月端午のグネ（鞦韆、吊縄(つりなわ)の長いブランコ）など、12月まで伝承された行事があるが、洪錫謨(こうしゃくも)の『東国歳時記』に網羅されている。これらの民俗行事は歳時記の序文で引き合いに出されているように、中国南方の楚(そ)国の『荊楚(けいそ)歳時記』と比較していることから、朝鮮民俗の淵源(えんげん)が察知できそうである。

　儒教思想から男女有別が判然としているが、家庭では女子はアンバン（内房）、男子はサランバン（舎廊房）を専有していた。年中行事でもノルティギ（板戯）、タルマジ（月迎）、グネは女子の遊びで、封建社会における女子解放の機会ともいわれていた。

　古い民俗習慣でいまも現存するのはシプチャンセン（十長生）とトンサンレ（東床礼）である。シプチャンセンは一種の敬老民俗で、日、山、水、石、雲、松、不老草、亀(かめ)、鶴(つる)、鹿(しか)の長生不老のものを描いたり刺しゅうにして壁掛けにする風習で、一種のアニミズムである。トンサンレは、結婚式後、新婦宅に泊まる新郎に対して、新婦の親族、集落の若者、新郎の友人が新郎を縛り上げ、または足を吊り上げて乱暴し、新婦宅から酒食をせびる風習である。

　衣食住の生活も古代朝鮮の遺習が今日まで残存している。朝鮮人の常用服であるチョゴリ（襦）、チマ（裳）、ツゥルマギ（周衣）は、古代朝鮮民族の居住地が亜寒帯に属していたことによって北方系の衣服である。住宅は朝鮮の気候風土にあう独特のものであるが、オンドル（温突）は、型は違うが満州の女真も使っていたものである。冠婚葬祭は朱子家礼によるものである。

［魚　塘］

言語と文字

朝鮮語は朝鮮半島および周辺の島嶼(とうしょ)や半島外の朝鮮民族の集団居住地（中国吉林(きつりん)省延辺朝鮮族自治州、アメリカのロサンゼルスなど）の約5000万朝鮮民族の言語である。朝鮮語は感情的な表現に富んでいる。

　朝鮮民族と同様明確な結論はないが、朝鮮語はアルタイ語族に属しているといわれている。アルタイ山脈から発して東に進んでモンゴル語、ツングース語となり、さらに南下して朝鮮語となった。アルタイ語系のトルコ、モンゴル、ツングースの3語群は構造上母音調和があり、前置詞を用いず後置詞の助詞を用い、アクセント音の長短によって意味が変わる場合がある。膠着(こうちゃく)性があるのは日本語と同様である。

　古代朝鮮語は、満州北西部にいた夫余族、咸鏡南・北道沿海地方の沃祖(よくそ)族、江原道一帯にまたがる穢貊族らの北方系朝鮮語と、慶尚南・北道東海岸一円の辰韓語と、洛東江(らくとうこう)下流を基点とする弁韓語、忠清道、全羅南・北道一円にわたる馬韓族の南方系といわれる朝鮮語とがある。『梁(りょう)書』の「百済伝」に「現在、その言語や衣裳(いしょう)は高句麗とほぼ同じ」とあり、『三国志』「弁辰伝」には「弁辰は辰韓と雑居している……言語や法俗もともに似ている」と述べ、類似性を指摘している。この北方系の民族が朝鮮半島へ南下して、生活土台が半島部に限られることにより、ことばの差は縮まり、新羅が三国を統一してからは新羅語を中心とした統一朝鮮語が形成されたものという。

　古代朝鮮では、中国人との言語接触の結果、早い時期に漢字が輸入されて使われている。朝鮮語は話すことばだけで、記録を残すには漢字しかなかったのである。つまり文語漢字と口語の朝鮮語の2言語使用であった。その結果、漢字要素が大量に朝鮮語に浸透したので、今日の朝鮮語のなかには膨大な漢字語が混じっている。

　高句麗以来、漢字によって自国語を表記する努力がなされた。新羅時代の吏読もその一つである。7世紀の薛聡(せっそう)の創案といわれ、漢字の音と意を借りて朝鮮語を表記した。この吏読は高麗、李朝を通じて19世紀まで使用されていた。そして1443年、李朝世宗(せいそう)のとき、表音文字の訓民正音(くんみんせいおん)（ハングル）の創製によって、言文一致の今日の朝鮮語と文字が完成された。

［魚　塘］

『中村栄孝著『朝鮮――風俗・民族・伝統』（1951・吉川弘文館）』▽『崔南善著、相馬清訳『朝鮮常識問答』（1965・宗高書房）』▽『金思燁著『朝鮮の風土と文化』（1976・六興出版）』▽『秋葉隆著『朝鮮民俗誌』（1980・名著出版）』▽『鎌田重雄著『朝鮮仏教の寺と歴史』（1980・大法輪閣）』▽『梶井陟著『朝鮮語を考える』（1980・龍渓書舎）』▽『魚塘著『朝鮮の民俗文化の源流』（1982・同成社）』▽『魚塘著『朝鮮新風土記』（1984・三一書房）』▽『姜在彦訳『朝鮮歳時記』（平凡社・東洋文庫）』