Chinese music

Japanese: 中国音楽 - ちゅうごくおんがく

China, which has a history spanning several thousand years, is one of the three major musical cultural spheres in Asia, along with the ancient Orient and Indus civilizations. China formed a musical culture unique to the Han people, and musical theory has been developed since ancient times, exerting a great influence on neighboring countries. China can be said to occupy a fundamental position in the East Asian musical cultural sphere.

The types of music are also diverse. There is gagaku, which was born with the establishment of feudal society and was long respected as the music of the ruling class based on Confucian ideas of ritual music, as well as engaku (banquet music), which was art and entertainment music performed at the imperial court and among the aristocracy, koto music for the shi-taifu (educated class), san music, the precursor to drama, and military music. On the other hand, music for the common people included chants (narration), folk songs, and drama. Since ancient times, twelve-tone and seven-tone (seven-tone scale) were established by the method of calculating musical scale, but after the Middle Ages, it was simplified and changed to the current pentatonic scale. The melody based on this scale and the metrical rhythm of the two-beat system create an atmosphere unique to Chinese music.

Below, we will provide an overview of the history of Chinese music, dividing it into four periods: (1) ancient, (2) medieval, (3) early modern, and (4) modern and contemporary.

[Tetsuo Shimura]

Ancient period = Indigenous music period

This period spans from prehistoric times to the Jin Dynasty in the 4th century. The origins of primitive music in the legendary era of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors are unknown, but in documents from the Zhou dynasty onwards, such as the Book of Songs, Book of Documents and Book of Rites, there are various legends about music, such as Emperor Huang made a bamboo lute and established musical scales, Fuxi made the zither and se, or Nuwa made the sheng and pole. It is likely that in clan societies before the Yin and Zhou dynasties, there existed songs and dances of shamanistic primitive religions that worshiped the heavens and the earth and prayed for good harvests.

In the Yin dynasty (17th to 11th centuries BC), documents such as the Records of the Grand Historian and archaeological sources show that songs and dances were performed for rituals, and musical instruments such as the chime, drums, xiao, and xun (clay flute), as well as primitive string instruments such as the zither and se, appeared. In the Zhou dynasty (11th century to 249 BC), feudal rulers established gagaku for ceremonial purposes, which was backed by Confucian ideas of ritual music and had a major influence on the ruling class in later generations. Confucius (552/551-479 BC), who lived in the turbulent Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, distinguished between yashen and zhengsheng, and valued yashen as Confucian ritual music, and this became the origin of the concept of gagaku. It was during this period that the sanbun-sengen system for determining musical scale was devised, the Twelve Rhymes and their names were established, and gagaku instruments such as bells, chimes, koto, se, flutes, yaku, chi, sho, xun, fu, shuku, gyo, and ko were all collected, and the gagaku eight-string dance (for literature and martial arts) was also developed.

In the Han dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD), gagaku became even larger in scale under the Zhou system, and the Taile Office was established to oversee gagaku, along with the development of secular music. As seen in the Book of Songs and the Chu Ci, folk songs were also performed, but they were introduced into the imperial court and turned into art. Since the Zhou dynasty, the music of the palace has been centered on wind and string instruments, not metal or stone instruments like gagaku, but even here folk songs were performed as banquet music in the harem. In addition, an office called the Yuefu was established in opposition to the Taile Office, and secular music such as the Qing Shang Sanjing was performed. The instruments and composition of banquet music at that time can be inferred from the instruments (koto, se, and twelve-stringed pipe) and wooden figurines of music unearthed in 1972 from the Han tombs of Mawangdui (Changsha, Hunan Province), as well as from murals and stone images in ancient tombs. During this period, Zhang Qian's expedition to the Western Regions led to the start of exchanges with the region, and Western instruments such as the biwa and koto, as well as music and dance from the region, and the predecessors of later Sangaku, such as Hyakuxi and Zaxi (primitive performances including acrobatics and acrobatic feats), were introduced to China. Buddhism was also introduced from India, but it was not until the following Three Kingdoms period that Buddhist music began to have an influence on China.

[Tetsuo Shimura]

Middle Ages = International Music Era

This period spans from the 5th century AD to the 9th century during the Tang Dynasty. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, northern tribes dominated northern China, while the Han people migrated south of the Yangtze River and came into conflict. While the Northern Dynasties were strongly influenced by the culture of the Bei Di and the Western Regions, the Southern Dynasties followed the traditions of gagaku and folk music. The Sui Dynasty (581-618), which unified China, made an effort to revive traditional gagaku (Confucian ritual music), and folk music (such as songs unique to China since the Han Dynasty) and Hu music (music of surrounding foreign tribes) also became popular. In 581 (the 1st year of the Kaihuang era), representative works of Hu music and folk music were selected and seven categories of musical instruments were established: National Music (Xiliang Music), Qingshang Music (Folk music of the Han dynasty), Goryeo Music (Goguryeo), Tianzhu Music (India), Anguk Music (Bohra), Guiji Music (Kucha), and Wenkang Music (Libi). During the reign of Emperor Yang (reigned 604-618), Shule Music (Kashgar) and Kangguo Music (Samarkand) were added, making a total of nine categories of musical instruments.

The Tang Dynasty (618-907), which established an unprecedentedly large empire, was also the heyday of Chinese music, characterized by its internationality and aristocracy. First, gagaku, following the example of the previous dynasties, was raised to an unprecedented scale. Then, the Sui Dynasty's nine-piece ensemble was removed from the Wenkang ensemble, and Yan ensemble (a new large piece) and Gaochang ensemble (Turfan) were added to make a ten-piece ensemble, which became the center of banquet music during national court events. These pieces of music belonged to the Taira Office of the Taichang Temple (the office of ceremonial music), a national institution, and had the character of ceremonial music. However, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (712-756), they began to be performed in the Teaching Hall, which was mainly staffed by prostitutes, and in the Liyuan, which gathered the best musicians from the Teaching Hall and the Taichang Temple, and they took on entertainment and became artistic, marking the pinnacle of prosperous Tang music. In addition, 14 newly composed banquet pieces were compiled and a two-part play consisting of tachibu (8 pieces) and zabu (6 pieces) was established.

In this way, Tang Zokugaku (Yen music), which was born from the fusion of Hu music and Zokugaku, was introduced to Japan, and while it has been nationalized, it is still handed down today as Japanese Gagaku, and the name of Japanese Gagaku Rokucho can be found in this Tang Zokugaku Nihachicho.In addition, the Shosoin Treasures in Nara house musical instruments such as the five-stringed biwa, ruan xian, fang zither, koto, ancient shakuhachi, and heptagon that were introduced to Japan during the Tang dynasty.

[Tetsuo Shimura]

Early Modern Period = Folk Music Period

This is a long period that stretches from the 10th century to the end of the Qing Dynasty in the 19th century. The development of music came to a temporary halt during the wars of the Five Dynasties, but in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), gagaku was revived again. Outstanding Confucian scholars emerged, discussions on music became lively, and music books such as Cai Yuanding's "Lu Lu Xin Shu" and Chen Yang's "Ye Shu" were compiled, as well as poetry anthologies such as Jiang Kui's "Baishi Daoren Kaqu." Meanwhile, music for the common people rose to prominence in the form of drama. Zaju, which was performed in theaters and other venues, was a simple opera that developed into Yuanqu during the Yuan dynasty and Kunqu during the Ming dynasty. Along with these zaju plays, storytelling music known as setsucho was also loved. Furthermore, shigaku, which arose during the Tang Dynasty, developed into two types: koto, which was accompanied by a taiko drum in the north, and danto, which was accompanied by a biwa in the south, and became very popular among both the court and common people.

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), China was conquered by the Mongols and was also influenced by Islamic music. One example is that the Chinese Chinese fiddle instrument now called the huqin or erhu is thought to have originated from the Islamic rabab. During the Yuan Dynasty, gagaku significantly broke with the system of the previous dynasty and instead demonstrated its characteristics as banquet music. Folk music was also popular, and folk songs known as sanqu became popular.

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), which was once again ruled by the Han people, attempts were made to revive Gagaku, but the old system had already been lost, and the state of elegance and vulgarity had become intermingled, and it followed the new system. Popular music flourished among the people, and some of it was introduced to Japan and called Ming music. During this period, Kunqu music, which originated in Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, became popular, overpowering various types of drama, and the sanxian, which appeared in the Yuan Dynasty, was linked to drama and gradually spread widely among the people.

During the Qing Dynasty (1616-1912), under the reigns of Emperor Kangxi (1661-1722) and Emperor Qianlong (1735-1795), gagaku was developed based on the Ming Dynasty system, and ceremonial music for Confucius temples was also established, but it was only a small-scale new system. Ensembles of sanxian, kokyu, flute, biwa, and dongxiao became popular among the general public, and some of these were introduced to Japan, where they were called Ming-Qing music, together with Qing music or Ming music, and remained popular until the early Meiji period. This was also the heyday of drama, with each region performing its own unique form of theater. In the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Erhuang Opera, which was combined with Xipi Opera, was introduced to Beijing and became the singing drama known as Peking Opera, which continues to thrive to this day.

[Tetsuo Shimura]

Modern and Contemporary World Music

When the Republic of China was established, gagaku at the imperial court disappeared. Only a few gagaku performances remained at Confucius temples, and they are still performed today, mainly in Tainan, Taiwan. In terms of music education, China modeled its music education system on Japan, and made an effort to absorb and digest Western music by sending students to Europe and the United States. As a result, new kokyu and pipa pieces were composed for traditional instruments that incorporated Western musical techniques. The achievements of these predecessors were inherited and developed in all aspects, including creation, performance, research, and education, even after the founding of the People's Republic of China.

During the Cultural Revolution, new works were created, mainly in Peking Opera, by introducing modern themes and Western musical techniques. In addition, traditional musical instruments were improved, making it possible to perform large ensembles with rich voices like Western orchestras, and many Western pieces were composed using ethnic musical materials. On the other hand, efforts were also made to decipher ancient musical scores and restore ancient musical instruments, and restorations of ancient songs are also popular.

[Tetsuo Shimura]

"Music of China" by Muramatsu Kazuya (1965, Keiso Shobo)" ▽ "Music of the Ancient Silk Road" by Kishibe Shigeo (1982, Kodansha)" ▽ "Selections of Oriental Music 2: Musical Instruments of the Tang Dynasty" by Kishibe Shigeo and Hayashi Kenzo (1968, Ongaku No Tomosha)" ▽ "A Study of East Asian Musical Instruments" by Hayashi Kenzo (1973, Kawai Music Score) ▽ "Studies on East Asian Koto" by Mitani Yoko (1980, Zen-On Music Publishers)

Sho
Late 19th century, wood, metal, ivory, length 50.2 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art , China

Sho

Special chimes
Mid-18th century, jade and gold plating, size 47.7 x 83.8 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, China

Special chimes

Three strings
19th century, wood and snakeskin, total length 123cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, China

Three strings

Dongxiao
Late 19th century, bamboo and ivory, length 59.7 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, China

Dongxiao

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

数千年の歴史をもつ中国は、古代オリエントおよびインダス文明とともにアジア三大音楽文化圏の一つで、漢民族独自の音楽文化を形成し、音楽理論も古くから発達して周辺の諸国にも多大の影響を与え、東アジア音楽文化圏の根源的地位にあるといえる。

　その音楽の種類も多様多彩である。封建社会の確立とともに生まれ、儒家の礼楽思想に基づいて長い間支配者階級の音楽として重んじられた雅楽をはじめ、宮廷や貴族階級の間で行われた芸術・娯楽音楽である燕楽(えんがく)（宴饗(えんきょう)楽）、士大夫(したいふ)（知識階級）の琴(きん)楽、戯劇の前身である散(さん)楽、そして軍楽などがあり、一方、庶民の音楽としては説唱（語物(かたりもの)）、民謡、戯劇などがあった。古代から、音律算定法によって十二律や七声（七音音階）が確立していたが、中世以後は単純化して現在のような五音音階に変化した。この音階による旋律と、二拍子系統の拍節的リズムとによって、中国音楽独特の雰囲気を醸し出している。

　以下、中国音楽の歴史を、（1）古代、（2）中世、（3）近世、（4）近現代の四つに分けて概観する。

［志村哲男］

古代＝固有音楽時代

これは先史時代から4世紀の晋(しん)朝までである。三皇五帝の伝説時代の原始音楽の起源は不明であるが、周代以後の『詩経』『書経』『礼記(らいき)』などの文献には、黄(こう)帝が竹で律管をつくって音律を定め、伏羲(ふくぎ)が琴(きん)および瑟(しつ)をつくり、あるいは女媧(じょか)が笙(しょう)や竿(う)をつくったなどの、音楽に関するさまざまな伝説がみられる。おそらく殷(いん)・周以前の氏族社会では、天地を祀(まつ)り収穫を祈願する巫俗(ふぞく)的原始宗教の歌舞が存在したと思われる。

　殷代（前17～前11世紀）には、『史記』などの文献や考古学的資料により、祭祀(さいし)の歌舞が行われたことがわかり、磬(けい)、太鼓、簫(しょう)、塤(けん)（土笛）などの楽器や、原始的な琴、瑟の弦楽器も出現、周代（前11世紀～前249）に至ると、封建統治者によって典礼のための雅楽が制定され、これは儒家の礼楽思想に裏づけられて、後世の支配階級に大きな影響を及ぼした。乱世の春秋戦国時代に生きた孔子（前552／551―前479）は、雅声と鄭(てい)声を区別し、儒家の礼楽として雅声を重んじ、これが雅楽の観念の本源となった。音律を定める三分(さんぶん)損益法が編み出されたのもこの時期で、十二律とその名称が確立し、鐘・磬・琴・瑟・管・籥(やく)・篪(ち)・笙・塤・缶(ふ)・柷(しゅく)・敔(ぎょ)・鼓(こ)などの雅楽器もそろい、雅楽の八佾(はちいつ)の舞(まい)（文・武）も整えられた。

　漢代（前202～後220）に入ると、雅楽は周制をいっそう大規模にし、雅楽をつかさどる太楽署(たいがくしょ)が設置され、これとともに俗楽も発達していく。『詩経』『楚辞(そじ)』などにみられるように、民謡も行われていたが、これを宮廷に取り入れて芸術化した。周代以来の房中楽は、雅楽のような金石類の楽器を使わない管弦楽器中心のものであるが、ここでも民間歌謡を後宮の宴楽として奏した。また、太楽署に対して楽府(がふ)という官署が設置され、清商(しんしょう)三調などの俗楽が行われた。当時の宴楽の楽器やその編成は、1972年に馬王堆(まおうたい)の漢墓（湖南省長沙(ちょうさ)）から出土した楽器（琴・瑟・十二律管）や奏楽木俑(もくよう)をはじめ、古墳壁画や画像石によって推察することができる。この時代には、張騫(ちょうけん)の西域(せいいき)遠征によって同地との交流が始まり、琵琶(びわ)・箜篌(くご)などの西域の楽器や楽舞、さらに後の散楽の前身となった百戯・雑戯（軽業(かるわざ)・曲芸を含む原始的な演戯）が伝播(でんぱ)された。インドから仏教も入ってきたが、仏教音楽が中国に影響を及ぼすようになるのは次の三国時代からである。

［志村哲男］

中世＝国際音楽時代

これは紀元後5世紀から唐朝の9世紀までである。南北朝時代は北方民族が華北を制圧し、漢民族は揚子江(ようすこう)の南に移って対立した。北朝が北狄(ほくてき)および西域の文化の影響を強く受けたのに対し、南朝は雅楽・俗楽の伝統を踏襲した。中国を統一した隋(ずい)（581～618）は、伝統の雅楽（儒家の礼楽）の復興に努力し、俗楽（漢以来の中国固有の歌曲など）と胡(こ)楽（周辺異民族の音楽）も盛んになった。581年（開皇1）には胡楽・俗楽の代表的なものを選んで、国伎(こくぎ)（西凉(せいりょう)伎）・清商伎（漢代俗楽）・高麗(こうらい)伎（高句麗(こうくり)）・天竺(てんじく)伎（インド）・安国伎（ボハラ）・亀茲(きじ)伎（クチャ）・文康伎（礼畢(れいひつ)）の七部伎を制定、煬帝(ようだい)（在位604～618）の時に至り、疏勒(そろく)伎（カシュガル）と康国伎（サマルカンド）を加えて九部伎とした。

　未曽有(みぞう)の大帝国を樹立した唐朝（618～907）は、中国音楽にとっても全盛期で、その特色は国際性と貴族性にある。まず雅楽は、歴朝を踏襲してこれを空前の規模に高めた。そして、隋の九部伎から文康伎を除き、燕楽伎（新作の大曲）と高昌(こうしょう)伎（トゥルファン）を加えて十部伎とし、国家宮廷の行事の際の宴饗楽の中心とした。これらの音楽は国家機関である太常寺（礼楽の司）の太楽署に属し、典礼楽の性格をもっていた。しかし、玄宗(げんそう)朝（712～756）に入ると、妓女(ぎじょ)を中心とする教坊や、教坊と太常寺の優秀な楽工を集めた梨園(りえん)において行われるようになり、娯楽性を帯び、芸術化されて、盛唐音楽の頂点を築いた。また新たに作曲された宴饗楽14曲をまとめ、立部（8曲）・坐(ざ)部（6曲）の二部伎が制定された。

　このように、胡楽と俗楽の融合によって生まれた唐俗楽（燕楽）は日本にも伝えられ、国風化されつつも日本の雅楽として現在も伝承され、日本雅楽六調の名称は、この唐俗楽二八調のなかにみいだすことができる。また、奈良の正倉院には、唐代に日本に伝えられた五絃(ごげん)琵琶、阮咸(げんかん)、方響(ほうきょう)、箜篌、古代尺八、七絃琴などの楽器が保存されている。

［志村哲男］

近世＝民族音楽時代

これは10世紀から清(しん)朝末の19世紀に至る長い時代である。五代の戦乱期には音楽の発達も一時止まったが、宋(そう)代（960～1279）になるとふたたび雅楽の復興が行われた。優れた儒学者が輩出し、音楽に関する論議が活発になり、蔡元定(さいげんてい)の『律呂(りつりょ)新書』や陳暘(ちんよう)の『楽書』などの音楽書、また姜夔(きょうき)の『白石道人歌曲』などの詩歌集が編纂(へんさん)された。一方、庶民の音楽が劇楽の形をとって台頭する。勾欄(こうらん)（劇場）などで演じられるこの雑劇は簡単な歌劇であったが、これが元代の元曲(げんきょく)や明(みん)代の崑(こん)曲へと発達していく。この雑劇とともに説唱と称される語物(かたりもの)の音楽も愛好された。さらに、唐代におこった詞楽は、太鼓を伴奏とする北方の鼓詞と、琵琶を伴奏とする南方の弾詞に分かれて発達し、朝野の区別なく大いに流行した。

　元代（1271～1368）、モンゴルによって征服されると、イスラム音楽の影響も受けた。現在胡琴あるいは二胡とよばれる中国の胡弓が、イスラムの胡弓ラバーブに源をもつと思われることなど、その一例である。元代においては、雅楽は前代の制度を著しく崩し、むしろ宴饗楽に特色を発揮している。また民謡も盛んで、散曲とよばれる民間歌曲の流行をみた。

　ふたたび漢民族による王朝の明代（1368～1644）には、雅楽の復活が試みられたが、すでに古制は失われ、雅俗混交の状態となり、新制に従った。民間には俗楽が盛行し、その一部は日本にも伝えられ明楽とよばれた。この時代は、江蘇(こうそ)省の崑山からおこった崑曲が諸戯劇を圧して流行し、元代に出現した三弦が戯劇と結び付き、しだいに国民の間に広く浸透していった。

　清代（1616～1912）には、康煕(こうき)帝（在位1661～1722）および乾隆(けんりゅう)帝（在位1735～1795）の時代に、明代の制度を基に雅楽の発展を図り、孔子廟(びょう)の祭礼楽もいちおう完備したが、小規模の新制にすぎなかった。民間では三弦・胡弓・笛・琵琶・洞簫(どうしょう)などによる合奏曲が流行、その一部は日本にも伝えられて、清楽あるいは明楽とあわせて明清楽とよばれ、明治初期まで流行した。またこの時代は戯曲が全盛を極め、各地にそれぞれ特有の演劇形態が行われていたが、清朝中期に西皮戯(せいひぎ)と結び付いた二黄劇が北京(ペキン)に入り、京劇として今日まで盛行を続ける唱劇となった。

［志村哲男］

近現代＝世界音楽時代

中華民国が樹立されると、宮廷の雅楽は消滅した。わずかに孔子廟の雅楽が残り、これは現在も台湾の台南を中心に行われている。音楽教育の面では、日本の音楽教育制度を模範にし、欧米に留学生を派遣するなどして、西洋音楽の摂取と消化に力を入れた。その結果、西洋音楽の手法を導入した伝統楽器のための新しい胡弓曲や琵琶曲などが作曲された。こういった先人の業績は、新中国成立後も創作、演奏、研究、教育などすべての面で継承、発展がなされた。

　文化大革命期には、京劇を中心に現代的題材や洋楽手法の導入による新しい作品がつくりだされた。また、伝統楽器の改良も行われ、西洋のオーケストラのような声部の充実した大合奏曲の演奏も可能となり、民族音楽的素材による洋楽曲も多数作曲されている。反面、古楽譜の解読や古代楽器の復原にも力が注がれ、古曲の復原演奏も盛んである。

［志村哲男］

『村松一弥著『中国の音楽』（1965・勁草書房）』▽『岸辺成雄著『古代シルクロードの音楽』（1982・講談社）』▽『岸辺成雄・林謙三著『東洋音楽選書2　唐代の楽器』（1968・音楽之友社）』▽『林謙三著『東アジア楽器考』（1973・カワイ楽譜）』▽『三谷陽子著『東アジア琴箏の研究』（1980・全音楽譜出版社）』