Occupation - occupatio (Latin)

Japanese: 先占 - せんせん（英語表記）occupatio ラテン語

In legal terms, there is Roman law, international law, and civil law pre-emption.

[Yuge Tatsuya]

Preemption of Roman Law

In Roman law, pre-emption refers to the acquisition of ownership of property that does not belong to anyone (unowned property) by taking possession of it with the intention of owning it. The objects of pre-emption are animals captured on land, in the sea, or in the air, objects captured from enemies in war, objects abandoned by their owners, islands that appear on the sea or in public rivers, and jewels and other objects found on the coast. What had a particularly large historical impact was that state-owned land without buildings was treated as the object of pre-emption of unowned property. Such pre-emption was obligated to pay a portion of the profits from it to the state treasury as stipendium (tax for war expenses), but this was often not collected, and the possessor of the land could use it for profit, as well as dispose of it by transferring, selling, or bequeathing, so that pre-emption became something similar to ownership. The biggest factor in the formation of large Roman landholdings was the increase in pre-emption, and attempts were made to limit pre-emption by law many times, but without success.

[Yuge Tatsuya]

Under international law

It is one of the rights to acquire territory recognized by international law, and refers to a country exerting control over land or islands that do not belong to any country with the intention of possessing them, and making them its territory. The object of pre-occupation is terra nullius under international law, which does not only refer to uninhabited islands, but also to land that is not part of a nation's territory even if people live there. The requirements for pre-occupation are the intention of the nation to possess it and effective occupation. Effective occupation means the establishment of control over the land rather than the use or settlement of the land, and the degree of occupation varies depending on the condition of the land. However, even if an uninhabited island is discovered and its ownership is declared, pre-occupation is not valid by itself. Pre-occupation under international law was introduced by analogy with the principle of pre-occupation of unclaimed property under Roman law, and has mainly served as a legal standard for the European great powers' competition to acquire colonies since the great geographical discoveries in the early modern period. It can be said that its historical role ended with the completion of the division of colonies, but for that reason, some Third World countries are critical of this rule. However, even today, there is room for application of the treaty to the acquisition of undetermined territories and to the determination of the validity of past occupation of territories that are the subject of territorial disputes. The ownership of Antarctica has not yet been determined, but the Antarctic Treaty does not allow new occupation and has frozen territorial rights.

[Taijudo Kanae]

Under civil law

Possession of movable property without an owner, such as wild animals, with the intention of ownership. Also called pre-emption of ownerless property. The person who pre-empts acquires ownership of the movable property by doing so (Civil Code Article 239, Paragraph 1). Possession must be with the intention of ownership, but this intention is sufficient if there is an intention to exercise de facto control similar to that of an owner, and does not require an intention to specifically acquire ownership. In the case of a crew member of a fishing company's whaling ship catching a whale, the company has pre-empted the property by using the crew member as its hands and feet. Since ownerless real property belongs to the state treasury (the state as the subject of property rights) (Civil Code Article 239, Paragraph 2), it is not subject to pre-emption.

[Toshio Takeuchi]

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

法律上の用語で、ローマ法、国際法、および民法上の先占がある。

［弓削　達］

ローマ法の先占

ローマ法では、だれの所有にも属さない物（無主物）を所有する意思で、それを占有取得することによってその所有権を取得すること。先占の客体となるものは、地上、海中、空中において捕獲される動物、戦争において敵から捕獲した物、所有者が放棄した物、および海上に出現した島、ないしは公河川の中に出現した島、また海岸で発見された宝石その他の物である。とくに歴史的に影響するところが大きかったのは、建物のない国有地が無主物先占の客体とされたことである。このような先占地は、そこから得られる収益の一部をスティペンディウム（戦費のための税）として国庫に納めることを義務づけられたが、それが徴収されないことも多く、またその占有者はその土地を使用収益するほか、譲渡、売却、遺贈による処分もできたから、占有は所有に近いものになっていった。ローマ大土地所有が形成されたもっとも大きな要因は、この先占地の増大で、法律によってたびたび先占地の制限が図られたが、成功しなかった。

［弓削　達］

国際法上

国際法が認める領域取得の権原の一つで、ある国がどの国にも属さない陸地や島に領有する意思で支配を及ぼし、その領域とすること。先占の客体は国際法上の無主地であるが、これは無人島に限らず、人が住んでいても国家の領域となっていない地をさす。先占の要件は国家による領有の意思と、実効的な占有とである。実効的占有は土地の使用や定住よりもむしろ支配権の確立を意味し、その程度は土地の状況によって異なる。しかし、無人島を発見して領有を宣言しても、それだけでは先占は有効とならない。国際法上の先占はローマ法の無主物先占の法理を類推して導入され、主として、近世初頭における地理上の大発見以来、ヨーロッパの列強による植民地獲得競争の法的基準として作用した。植民地分割の完了とともに歴史的役割を終えたといえるが、それだけに、第三世界の諸国のなかにはこの規則に対する批判がある。しかし今日でも帰属未定地の取得や、領土紛争の対象地域に対する過去の先占の効力判定に、適用される余地がある。南極大陸は帰属がまだ確定しないが、南極条約により新たな先占は認められず、領土権が凍結されている。

［太寿堂鼎］

民法上

野生の動物など所有者のいない動産を、所有の意思をもって占有すること。無主物先占ともいう。先占をした者は、これによりその動産の所有権を取得する（民法239条1項）。所有の意思をもって占有することが必要とされるが、この意思は、所有者がするのと同様の事実的支配をする意思があれば足り、とくに所有権を取得しようとする意思は必要でない。漁業会社の捕鯨船の乗組員が鯨を捕獲したというような場合には、その会社が乗組員を手足に使って先占したこととなる。無主の不動産は国庫（財産権の主体としての国家）の所有に属することとなるので（同条2項）、先占の対象とならない。

［竹内俊雄］

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