When a force is applied to a solid material, it deforms, and as the applied force increases, it eventually breaks. There are two types of deformation in materials: elastic deformation, in which the material returns to its original shape when the force is removed, and plastic deformation, in which the material retains its deformed shape even after the force is removed. Materials that break without experiencing almost any plastic deformation are called brittle fracture. Materials that follow this type of fracture are called brittle materials, which are so-called fragile materials. In particular, glass and ceramic materials elastically deform in proportion to the force applied to them and break without any plastic deformation. Such materials are called completely brittle materials, and their fracture is sometimes called elastic fracture. Brittle fracture is seen in graphite and cast iron. When the applied force reaches a certain limit, tiny cracks first appear, which propagate at a speed similar to the speed of sound, leading to total destruction. The fracture surface of a brittle fractured material is almost perpendicular to the direction of the tensile stress inside the material, and exhibits shiny grains. In contrast to brittle fracture, fracture that occurs after large plastic deformation is called ductile fracture. Ordinary steel materials break in ductile fashion, but at low temperatures they can show brittle fracture with almost no plastic deformation. The accidents of welded steel ships that occurred in the United States after World War II were caused by this low-temperature brittleness. When the brittle fracture strength of brittle materials is actually measured, it is orders of magnitude smaller than the theoretical strength predicted from a perfect crystal structure. It was AA Griffith who linked the cause of this to structural defects in the crystal, and he hypothesized that tiny cracks (called Griffith cracks) latent inside the object act as stress amplifiers, announcing his theory around 1920. He assumed that these cracks were elongated elliptical holes, and calculated the length of the potential cracks using the theory of elasticity. This theory has since been studied by many scholars, and various experiments have been carried out, and today it is accepted as the theory that explains the fracture strength of perfect brittle materials. Materials that undergo brittle fracture under tensile force will fracture in a different manner when subjected to compression. The fracture of solid materials is a fundamental issue regarding the strength of materials, and is a deciding factor when designing machines and structures. However, there are still many unknowns about this issue, and research is being conducted by researchers around the world. [Kunio Hayashi] [Reference] |Chalk is twisted and broken. It breaks with almost no deformation. ©Shogakukan "> Examples of brittle fracture Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
固体材料に力を加えると変形し、加える力を大きくしていくとついには破壊する。材料の変形には、力を取り除くと元の形に戻る弾性変形と、力を取り去っても変形したままの形を保つ塑性変形とがある。塑性変形をほとんど生じないで破壊する場合を脆性破壊という。この破壊様式に従うものを脆性材料とよぶが、これはいわゆるもろい材料である。とくにガラスやセラミックス材料などは加えられる力に比例して弾性変形し、塑性変形を伴うことなく破壊するが、このような材料を完全脆性材料といい、その破壊を弾性破壊とよぶことがある。 脆性破壊は黒鉛や鋳鉄にみられ、加わる力がある限界値に達すると、まず微小な亀裂(きれつ)が生じ、それが音速と同じくらいの速度で伝播(でんぱ)して全体的破壊に至るもので、わずかの塑性変形を伴い、破壊までの変形はかならずしも力に比例しない。脆性破壊した材料の破断面は、材料内部の引張り応力の方向にほぼ垂直で、光輝をもつ粒状を呈している。脆性破壊とは対照的に、大きな塑性変形をしたのちに破壊するものを延性破壊とよぶ。通常の鉄鋼材料の破壊は延性破壊であるが、低温ではほとんど塑性変形を伴わない脆性破壊を示すことがある。アメリカで第二次世界大戦後に発生した溶接鉄鋼船の事故は、この低温脆性が原因であった。 脆性材料の脆性破壊強さを実測すると、完全な結晶構造から予想される理論強さに比べて桁(けた)違いに小さい。この原因を結晶の構造欠陥と関連づけたのはグリフィスA. A. Griffithで、彼は、物体内部に潜在する微小亀裂(グリフィス・クラックとよぶ)が応力増幅作用をするためであるとの仮説をたて1920年ころに発表した。このクラックを細長い楕円(だえん)孔と仮定し、弾性学の理論を用いて潜在するであろうクラックの長さを計算した。この理論はその後多くの学者により検討され、いろいろな実験も行われて、今日では完全脆性材料の破壊強さを説明する理論として認められている。 引張り力に対して脆性破壊する材料でも、圧縮に対しては異なった様式の破壊をする。固体材料の破壊は材料の強さの基本問題であり、機械や構造物を設計する際の決め手となるものであるが、現在なお不明の点が多く、世界中の研究者により研究が進められている。 [林 邦夫] [参照項目] |チョークをねじり折ったもの。ほとんど変形なしに破壊される©Shogakukan"> 脆性破壊の例 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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