Sake - Seishu

Japanese: 清酒 - せいしゅ

A typical brewed alcoholic drink from ancient Japan, "sake" refers to "seishu" or "Japanese sake." It is the opposite of "dakushu" (cloudy sake), meaning sake that has been filtered to make it clear. In the past, it was also read as "sumisake." The definition of seishu, according to the current Liquor Tax Law, can be summarized as follows:

(1) Traditional sake: made by fermenting rice, rice koji, and water, and then straining it.

(2) Sake with added alcohol, sugar, etc. Due to the shortage of rice for raw materials during and after World War II, alcohol was added in 1942 (Showa 17), and in 1949 (Showa 24), a method called zojo method was permitted in which a "seasoning liquid" made by mixing a 30% alcohol solution with glucose, starch syrup, lactic acid, succinic acid, citric acid, and monosodium glutamate was added to the mash. All of these auxiliary ingredients are added at the mash stage and filtered to make sake, and it is not permitted to add them directly to the sake. There are restrictions on the amount of zojo produced at one factory (up to 23% of the total amount of white rice used), and the total amount of auxiliary ingredients must not exceed the amount of rice used.

(3) Sake made with substitute ingredients: Barley, millet, starch, etc. are used in combination. This was used in emergencies, and is no longer permitted today in order to maintain the traditional quality and style of sake.

(4) Kasu Koshi Sake: Sake made using fresh sake lees.

As alcoholic beverages are an important source of national revenue, they are subject to a high liquor tax, and in order to prevent bootlegging and excessive competition and to conserve liquor tax revenue, all production and sale are subject to a license system. Regarding the tax system for sake, the grading system of special grade, first grade, and second grade that had been used until then was abolished in April 1992, after a three-year transitional measure that began in April 1989 (Heisei 1), and all taxes were changed to a specific amount tax. Meanwhile, to help consumers understand the quality of sake, ginjo sake, junmai sake, and honjozo sake were designated as "specified name sake" and the "Sake brewing method quality labeling standards" were established.

[Yuichi Akiyama]

history

It is not clear when sake brewing using rice began in Japan, but it is believed to have been introduced from the continent along with the introduction of rice cultivation. The Gishiwajinden (Records of the Wei Dynasty) indicates that drinking was already a custom in Japan around the 3rd century, with records such as "people enjoyed drinking alcohol" and "drinking and singing in the company of others" during funerals. The Osumi Fudoki (Records of Osumi) indicates the existence of "kuchikami no sake," which was made by chewing rice, and the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki (Records of the Chronicles) also state that Susukori (also known as Niho), a Baekje man who came to Japan during the reign of Emperor Ojin (5th century), was the first to introduce the method of sake brewing. Mastication sake is a primitive sake brewing method that uses saccharification enzymes contained in saliva to convert starch into glucose, and waits for yeast from the air to penetrate and for alcoholic fermentation to occur naturally. The word "kamosu" for sake brewing is said to come from the word "masticate," or from the archaic word for koji, kamutachi (kamutachi), which means moldy, or "kabitachi." Mastication sake has already disappeared. Similarly, the traditional sake brewing method "kamishi sake" is thought to have been based on the oriental brewing method using koji. After that, sake brewing was carried out at the Imperial Court and monks' quarters throughout the Nara and Heian periods, and gradually spread to the general public, but it is thought that new sake brewing techniques were introduced from China and Korea and improved upon. For example, the making of yeast starter, the three-stage fermentation method of mash, pasteurization method, ceramic containers, tools such as saws and planes used in making barrels, etc. However, there is a difference in that in China, koji is called kyokushi, and coarsely crushed raw grain powder is kneaded with water and left to grow mainly Rhizopus fungus, whereas in Japan, koji mold is grown on steamed rice. It is a great improvement on the imported techniques in a Japanese style, and it is thought that this led to the birth of Japan's unique sake. The Engishiki (completed in 927) shows that koji and getsu (rice sprouts) were used in sake brewing at that time, and the use of malt is also inferred. There are also indications of "clean sake" and "cloudy sake," but these were probably just the clear top layer of sake, unlike the clean sake of today. The Imperial Court established a sake brewer to brew ceremonial sake such as white sake and dark sake, as well as sake for offerings. Sake was an essential part of religious ceremonies, and was produced primarily at the Imperial Court and temples and shrines.

Later, as cities developed, sake brewing gradually shifted to the private sector, and sake shops were born. At the end of the 14th century, around the time of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, a liquor tax (sakayayaku) was imposed. Sake production became so prosperous during the Kamakura period that a prohibition was issued, and it is said that there were more than 300 sake shops in Kyoto during the Muromachi period. During the Edo period, taxes such as "sakaya unjo" and "myogakin" were imposed, and sake brewers were given "sakakabu" (sake stocks), which restricted sake brewing businesses and helped to regulate rice distribution. In the Meiji period, a license and tag system was established, followed by a rice production tax system based on the amount of rice produced. In 1944 (Showa 19), the current warehouse release tax system was established, which is levied when sake is released from a brewery or bonded area. The liquor tax accounted for nearly 30% of national tax revenue around 1897 (Meiji 30), and remained an important source of revenue, at just over 10% until the early 1950s. However, the weight of direct taxes increased, and the liquor tax fell to around 3%.

[Yuichi Akiyama]

History of sake brewing technology

In terms of sake brewing techniques, the first sake brewing was the Yashiori method, which appears in the myth of the Yamata no Orochi (Eight-headed Serpent). "Shioru" refers to the process of first filtering the matured mash to obtain sake, then adding rice malt and rice gruel to the sake and fermenting it. "Hachi" means "many," and indicates that the brewing process is repeated many times to make a strong sake. The Engishiki method of brewing using rice malt was further improved in the Muromachi period, with the development of the dankake method and shubo (moto) brewing, and the two-stage and three-stage brewing process. The Goshu no Nikki (Diary of a Sake Brewer) (1355-1489) records the Mizumoto and Dankake methods, and the Tamon-in Nikki (Diary of a Sake Brewer) (1478-1611), written by the monk Eishun of Kofuku-ji Temple in Nara during the late Muromachi period (late 16th century), records the three-stage brewing method and pasteurization that are still used today. Pasteurization actually dates back 300 years to the pasteurization method used by the Frenchman Pasteur on wine. This fact was revealed by the Englishman Atkinson (foreign teacher at the University of Tokyo) in his book Nihon Joshuhen (Japanese Brewing and Sake), written in 1881 (Meiji 14), with great surprise that pasteurization, which had started to be used for beer, was already in common use for sake.

The scale of brewing also changed with the beginning, when brewers used earthenware jars to brew about 200 liters, but with the introduction of tools (planes and saws) and the use of bamboo hoops around the Azuchi-Momoyama period, 10-koku barrels (about 2 kiloliters capacity) began to be made, and brewing progressed to larger sizes. Until then, sake brewing had been a woman's job, as the word toji (master brewer) suggests, but it gradually became a male specialty (the number of women in the profession is increasing). During the Edo period, rice polishing using a waterwheel and kan brewing were introduced, and sake brewing techniques advanced greatly. Until then, sake brewing took place from the autumn equinox until spring, and yeast was cultivated in a yeast starter called mizumoto or bodaimoto during the warmer months. This method uses lactic acid bacteria to suppress other harmful bacteria, and was already being used in the Muromachi period, but many failures occurred due to spoilage, so it was eventually narrowed down to "kan-zukuri" (cold brewing) which has the optimal conditions. Traditionally, kimoto (raw yeast) was used for cold brewing, but due to the heavy labor involved in the yamaoroshi (a process of grinding the yeast) process, it was improved at the end of the Meiji period and changed to yamaoroshi-abolished moto (yamahai-moto), but today it has been further streamlined and often uses fast-fermenting moto, in which lactic acid is added to the brewing water. At first, Ikeda and Itami were the main producers of authentic sake supplied to Edo, the consuming region, but with the development of shipping, Nada, Nishinomiya and other places came to prominence. Cold brewing techniques are the origin of modern sake brewing, and methods such as the blending ratio and three-stage brewing remain unchanged to this day. In 1904 (Meiji 37), the National Brewing Laboratory (now the National Research Institute of Brewing, an independent administrative institution located in Higashihiroshima City, Hiroshima Prefecture) was established in Takinogawa, Tokyo. Scientific research into sake brewing was conducted and rational, safe sake brewing techniques were established.

In modern sake brewing, traditional techniques and tools have undergone great advances and changes. With the development of continuous rice polishing machines, steamers, and mash pressing machines, as well as the establishment of multi-story four-season brewing factories and the adoption of outdoor fermentation methods using large tanks, it is now possible to brew all year round, regardless of seasonal conditions, and mass production has progressed to a new level, with these modern factories no longer bearing any resemblance to the sake breweries of the past. Technological advances have improved quality, but at the same time, there has been an increase in standardization. However, in recent years, with the return to local sake, sake is moving in the direction of diversification and individualization.

[Yuichi Akiyama]

Manufacturing method

The characteristics of sake brewing can be easily understood by comparing it with beer brewing: (1) rice is converted into sugar using koji (as opposed to malt in beer), and (2) sugar conversion and fermentation are carried out simultaneously in one tank (as opposed to the two processes being carried out separately in beer). This is called multiple parallel fermentation, and it produces an unprecedented high alcohol concentration of 20%.

The outline of the production process is as follows: (1) First, brown rice is polished and steamed, (2) koji is made, (3) the yeast is cultivated in the yeast starter (moto), (4) the mash is prepared and fermented for about 20 days, (5) it is pressed to separate the lees, and the sake is made into sake, which is pasteurized and stored.

Brown rice for sake brewing is put through a rice polishing machine, and about 30% of the weight of the brown rice is removed as bran. This 70% polished rice is washed in water, soaked in water for a while to allow the rice to absorb the appropriate amount of water, drained, and steamed. The rice is placed in a steamer placed on a large pot and steamed for about 30 to 50 minutes. Large factories use a continuous rice steamer. Some of the steamed rice is made into koji. The koji, steamed rice, and brewing water are mixed, and lactic acid (0.5%) and sake yeast are added and fermented to create the yeast starter (fast-brewing moto). Rice koji, steamed rice, and water are added to this yeast starter in three separate additions (three-stage brewing). There are three stages called Hatsuzoe (commonly known as simply added), Nakazoe, and Tomezoe, but the rule is that the amount added each time is roughly double. The mash thus prepared is heated from about 8°C at a rate of about 1°C per day until it is about 15°C and fermentation can begin. Fermentation produces about 1% alcohol per day, and after about 20 days the mash's alcohol content reaches 18-20% and matures. During this time, the mash produces bubbles, which can take on various forms, such as rock foam, high foam, falling foam, earth foam, and ball foam (non-foaming yeast has also been developed that does not produce bubbles in the mash). The matured mash is placed in sake bags of about 5 liters each, and then placed in a vat (compressor) for squeezing. After squeezing, the mash is left to stand for 1-2 months, the lees are separated, and the mash is clarified. This new sake is blended with the other sakes, heated to 60-63°C, and stored in a tank for aging. Usually, alcohol is added to the matured mash (alum-added sake), but in some cases, an alcoholic seasoning is added and the mash is further fermented (sanzoshu).

[Yuichi Akiyama]

Changes in sake quality, ingredients and taste

There is no way of knowing what the quality of sake was during the Edo period or the beginning of the Meiji period, when rice was pounded with a waterwheel, but analytical values have been available since 1877 (Meiji 10). Sake at that time had a sake meter value of +10 or more, an alcohol content of 13-17%, an acidity of 4 or more, almost no sugar, and was very dry (sake meter value is a term that indicates specific gravity, with 0 as the boundary, and the higher the + (plus) number, the lighter the specific gravity and the less sugar there is, the drier the sake, and the higher the - (minus) number, the sweeter the sake). At sake tastings around 1907 (Meiji 40), sake was rated +10, with an acidity of 3.0, an alcohol content of 17%, and an extract content of about 3 (extract is non-volatile matter, mainly sugar, and the higher the number, the sweeter the sake). At the end of the Taisho period, the extract content gradually increased to +3, 2.8 and 4, and by 1935 (Showa 10), guidance was given on strong, delicious sake, with sake with a -10, 2.5 and 7 extract content dominating the rankings. At that time, Japanese sake ranged from sweet to exceptionally dry (onikoroshi). Sake meter is a term indicating the specific gravity of sake, and is graduated at 10 times the 1 degree of the Baume hydrometer, with - (minus) being assigned to the side heavier than water and + (plus) being assigned to the side lighter. Therefore, sake before the Showa period was +, indicating that it had little extract and was dry. It also had much more acidity than today's sake. After World War II, the economic recovery and technological advances caused a big change in the quality of sake. Changes can be seen broadly divided into those up to 1960 (Showa 35), up to 1970, 1970-1975, 1975-1980, and 1980 and after. Until around 1960, the traditional sake type was maintained, with Nada sake often having a + (plus) sake meter value, and Fushimi sake around - (minus) 7. The acidity of both was 2.0, and the quality of the sake from these two famous brewing regions was quite different. From around 1960, there was a gradual trend towards sweeter sake, and the acidity also gradually decreased. Nada sake's sake meter value went from + (plus) to - (minus) 3 to 5, while Fushimi's was - (minus) 7, with an acidity of 1.7. From around 1970, the average sake meter value was - (minus) 7, with little difference between Nada and Fushimi, and the acidity also became around 1.7 to 1.4. The color of the sake also became lighter rapidly. Around 1975, sake became sweeter, and analysis showed a homogenization of sake with a sake meter value of -6 and an acidity of 1.4, which drew criticism. Since 1980, the relationship between acidity, sugar, and taste has been shown, and the average sake sold on the market has a sake meter value of 0 and an acidity of 1.4, which shows signs of becoming lighter, while at the same time individualization is progressing. Also, with diversification of eating habits, various types of sake are now available on the market, such as junmai sake, honjozo sake, dry sake, high-acid sake, and low-alcohol sake, and the combination of sake meter value and acidity has created a greater range in taste than before. With a sake meter value ranging from +10 to -7 (average 0) and acidity ranging from 1.1 to 2.4 (average 1.4), a variety of well-balanced sakes have been produced.

When it comes to the taste of sake, sweetness and dryness are the most important elements, as they are often mentioned first. The sense of sweetness is naturally influenced by the sugar concentration, but acidity also has a large impact. When there is a lot of acidity, the sweetness is perceived as weak, and when there is little acidity, the sake will taste sweet even if it has little sugar. Sweetness is best felt at body temperature, and becomes dull at lower temperatures. Also, when it comes to richness, if the acidity increases in a sweet sake, it will taste stronger, and if the opposite is true, it will taste light and refreshing.

[Yuichi Akiyama]

Sake production and consumption

During the Bunka and Bunsei periods of the Edo period (1804-1830), it is said that one million barrels (one barrel is 4 to) of "downstream sake" were shipped from Nada to Edo, and it is estimated that in Edo, on average, each person drank about one barrel per year. During the Meiji period, there were nearly 10,000 businesses producing 4 million koku (720,000 kiloliters), and by 1919 (Taisho 8), the figure was recorded at approximately 6 million koku (1.06 million kiloliters). Around 1932-33 (Showa 7-8), the figure was 700,000 kiloliters, but production was restricted during World War II, and by 1947 it had fallen to 100,000 kiloliters. After the war, as the economy recovered, annual consumption recovered rapidly, reaching approximately 480,000 kiloliters in 1955, 710,000 kiloliters in 1960, and approximately 1.2 million kiloliters in 1965. Modernization began in 1969 with structural improvement projects, which led to a peak of 1.53 million kiloliters in 1970 and 1.67 million kiloliters in 1975. Since then, consumption has stagnated and declined, falling to around 1.2 million kiloliters in 1996.

[Yuichi Akiyama]

Sake labeling

Alcoholic beverages are to be labeled with the manufacturer, location, year of manufacture, volume, type of alcohol, and alcohol content, and although there are also regulations for labeling additives, no additives are listed, as no synthetic preservatives are used today. The Standards for Labeling Quality of Specified Name Sake, enacted in 1990 (Heisei 2), stipulate the distinction between ginjo sake, junmai sake, and honjozo sake, and the Japan Sake and Shochu Makers Association has established standards for labeling sake, displaying the ingredients and manufacturing method. The four ingredients are rice, rice malt, brewing alcohol, and brewing sugar, and (1) junmai sake is labeled with rice and rice malt, (2) blended zojo sake is labeled with the four ingredients, and (3) honjozo sake, ginjo sake, and regular alcohol-added sake are labeled with rice, rice malt, and brewing alcohol. Regarding the quality of the manufacturing process, the ingredients are listed as above, and for sake with a specific name, (1) Ginjo-shu has a rice polishing ratio of 60% or less, and Daiginjo-shu has a rice polishing ratio of 50% or less, both of which have their own unique aroma, color, and texture due to the ginjo-shu method, such as low-temperature fermentation, (2) Junmai-shu has a rice polishing ratio of 70% or less and has good aroma, color, and Junmai Ginjo-shu and Junmai Daiginjo-shu are as above. (3) Honjozo-shu has a rice polishing ratio of 70% or less and has good aroma, color, and texture. The alcohol content of Honjozo-shu is 10% or less of the rice weight. "Tezukuri" is sake made using traditional methods. "Taru-shu" is sake made in a cedar barrel with a cedar aroma. "Genshu" is sake made without adding water after the mash is pressed, and many commercially available genshu have a high alcohol content, close to 20%.

There are various types of sake. The most common are sweet sake and dry sake. The driest type is called onigoroshi. Polyacid sake is sake with a strong sour taste. Red sake is pink sake, made from rice koji made with monascus, a mold that produces a crimson pigment. Active sake is also called nigori sake, and is made by roughly straining the mash, leaving the lees (still containing the fermentation gases), reminiscent of the old "doburoku." It is so named because it produces bubbles of carbon dioxide. Reiyoushu (cold sake) is a light type (ginjo type) sake that is drunk chilled in the summer. It is kept in the refrigerator or drunk on the rocks. Namazake (unpasteurized sake) is fresh sake made by squeezing the mash and filtering it sterile, without pasteurization, and has a strong fermented aroma. Nama-chozoshu is sake made by storing unpasteurized sake at low temperatures and then flash-sterilizing it when bottling, preserving the flavor of unpasteurized sake. Kijoshu is sake brewed with sake instead of brewing water. It has a sake meter value of -40 to 50, an acidity of 3, and an alcohol content of 18%. There is also the Chinese Laojiu, known as Shan-niang Laojiu, which is brewed with Shaoxing wine, and is considered a rich, precious sake.

[Yuichi Akiyama]

Famous brewing regions and master brewers

Sake has been created based on the climate and lifestyles of each region of Japan, and over time each region has developed its own unique character. Kochi Prefecture on the Pacific coast and Toyama and Niigata Prefectures on the Sea of Japan coast tend to have dry sake, which is thought to be due to their seafood and lifestyles. Prefectures facing the Seto Inland Sea tend to have sweet sake, showing a commonality between these mild regions. Hokkaido and the three Tohoku prefectures (Akita, Aomori, and Yamagata) also tend to have light, though slightly different, sake. On the other hand, sake from Gifu, Nagano, Gunma, and Tochigi prefectures in the central mountainous region tends to be strong.

There are many famous sake-brewing regions all over Japan, but the biggest are Nada and Fushimi. Nada consists of five districts (Nada Gogo): Imazu in Nishinomiya City, Hyogo Prefecture; Uosaki, Mikage, and Shinzaike in Kobe City. In 1997, over 40 sake breweries were concentrated here, including 7 of the top 10 sake breweries in terms of shipping volume, and about 30% of the nation's sake (about 420,000 kiloliters) was shipped here. Famous brands include Hakutsuru, Ozeki, Nihonzakari, Shirayuki, Kikumasamune, Hakushika, Sawanotsuru, Kenbishi, Sakuramasamune, Fukumusume, and Tamon. During the Edo period, Nada had all the conditions for sake brewing, including the advantage of being a location where maritime trade flourished and 1,000 koku ships could be used to transport sake to Edo, a major consumer city, and the good water quality of Miyamizu, high-quality Banshu rice, Yoshino cedar barrels and pails, the skills of the Tanba brewers, and the cold winds of Rokko. As the sake is known as masculine sake, it is either dry or sweet, but has a strong and versatile quality.

It is said that Kyoto's center was around Uzumasa, where Matsuo Taisha Shrine, the god of sake, is located. However, from the Azuchi-Momoyama to Edo periods, Fushimi developed as a commercial town, and became the center of sake brewing thanks to the abundant soft water from the Momoyama Hills, producing rich, sweet sake with a rounded taste. 32 companies ship about 170,000 kiloliters, and famous brands include Gekkeikan, Kizakura, Shochikubai, Tomio, Tamanohikari, and Tsuki no Katsura.

Hiroshima sake, centered around Saijo, has become famous for its unique brewing method using soft water, and has distinguished itself at national sake tasting competitions. Sweet, full-bodied sake varieties include Kamozuru, Hakubotan, Fukubijin, and Kirei.

Akita Prefecture's sake, which is made with rice as a backbone, is highly polished and boasts a smooth, full-bodied flavor, and has been trying to make its way into Tokyo since the Taisho period. Brands include Ranman, Ryoseki, Taiheizan, Aramasa, Hiraizumi, and Takashimizu.

The Tohoku region has many famous wine-producing regions, including Hachinohe (Momogawa), Morioka (Asahiraki), Aizu (Aizu Homare, Eisen, Suehiro), and Tsuruoka City (Oyama, Dewa no Yuki).

Other dry sake brewing areas include Kochi (Tsukasabotan, Tosatsuru) and Kumamoto (Bishounen, Zuiyo, Koro), while Nagano produces cool and clear sake (Masumi). The Japan Sea coast produces smooth sake befitting the white fish and snowy climate, and Niigata and Toyama prefectures produce dry Koshi no Kanbai, Yoshinogawa, Asahiyama, Koshi no Homare, Tateyama, and Ginban. Ishikawa produces sake with a gentle fullness that is thought to be the influence of Kaga culture, and is home to Fukumasamune, Manzairaku, Nichiei, Kikuhime, and the unusual type Sogen. Each prefecture has two or three representative ginjo sakes, but the ones that have gained fame in recent years are Kumamoto Prefecture's Kaoru, Oita Prefecture's Nishinoseki, Ehime Prefecture's Umenishiki, and Miyagi Prefecture's Urakasumi.

The head of sake brewing technicians is called a Toji. It can also be used as a general term for technicians. Many of them come from snowy mountain villages and work away from home in the winter. The Toji gathers the people who work with him, leads them, and supervises their work. Toji are named after their hometown. The main master brewers are the Nanbu Toji (Iwate Prefecture), Yamauchi Toji (Akita Prefecture), Echigo Toji (Niigata Prefecture), Noto Toji (Noto, Ishikawa Prefecture), Suwa Toji (Suwa, Nagano Prefecture), Tamba Toji (Sasayama, Hyogo Prefecture. The main master brewers in the Nada region), Tajima Toji (Hyogo Prefecture), Bitchu Toji (Okayama Prefecture), Akika Toji (Izumo, Shimane Prefecture), Mitsu Toji (Hiroshima Prefecture), Ikata Toji (Ehime Prefecture), and Mizuma Toji (Fukuoka Prefecture). Each is in charge of their own region, has their own unique style, and strives to create unique sake.

[Yuichi Akiyama]

How to drink

As the word "kan" suggests, sake is warmed in a tokkuri and drunk in a small sake cup. Warm sake is 42°C, normal sake is 45°C, and hot sake is about 50°C. When poured into a sake cup, the temperature drops by about 10°C. The Yojokun states that "you should drink warm sake in both summer and winter, but cold sake is not good," but this is probably because warm sake encourages you to drink it more slowly. Also, sake at that time was very sour and not sweet, so it may have become easier to drink when warmed. Cold sake has a smooth mouthfeel and you tend to drink it quickly and overdose on the amount, so care must be taken. In recent years, sake has become lighter and lifestyles have become simpler, so cold sake is becoming more common. It is often drunk on the rocks with ice in the glass. Ginjo-type sake becomes too fragrant when heated, so it is best to drink it cold or on the rocks. Depending on the season and your mood, you can enjoy either cold or hot sake, and it can be fun to try different types of sake and glasses depending on the food you're eating.

[Yuichi Akiyama]

"Japanese Sake" by Sakaguchi Kinichiro (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "Japanese Sake" by Sumie Kaneyuki (1962, Kawade Shobo Shinsha)" ▽ "The History of Japanese Sake" by Yuzuki Manabu (1975, Yuzankaku Publishing)" ▽ "The History of Japanese Sake" edited by Kato Benzaburo (1977, Kenseisha)" ▽ "University of Tokyo Open Lecture Series 22: Sake" (1976, University of Tokyo Press) ▽ "The Story of Sake Brewing" by Akiyama Yuichi (1984, Gihodo Publishing) ▽ "Japanese Sake" by Akiyama Yuichi (1994, Iwanami Shinsho) ▽ "A Guide to Japanese Sake" by Yoshizawa Miyu (1997, Shogakukan)

The sake (Japanese sake) manufacturing process
©Shogakukan ">

The sake (Japanese sake) manufacturing process

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

日本古来の代表的な醸造酒で、「さけ」といえば清酒をさし、また日本酒ともいう。濁酒(だくしゅ)（濁り酒(にごりざけ)）に対する語で、これを濾(こ)して澄明にした酒の意。古くは「すみさけ」とも訓(よ)んだ。清酒の定義は、現行の酒税法によると次のように要約される。

(1)伝統的な清酒　米、米麹(こめこうじ)、水を原料として発酵させ、濾したもの。

(2)アルコール、糖類などの添加清酒　第二次世界大戦中や戦後の原料米不足で、1942年度（昭和17）からアルコール添加が行われ（アル添酒）、49年度（昭和24）から増醸法といって、30％アルコール液にブドウ糖、水飴(みずあめ)、乳酸、コハク酸、クエン酸、グルタミン酸ソーダを混ぜた「調味液」をもろみに添加する方法が認められた。これら副原料はすべてもろみの段階で添加され、濾過(ろか)して清酒となるものであり、清酒に直接加えることは許されない。増醸には、一工場においての製造数量に対する規制（全白米使用量の23％以内）があり、副原料の総量が米の使用量を超えてはならない。

(3)代用原料使用清酒　ムギ、アワや、デンプンなどを併用する。緊急時などに対応するもので、清酒の伝統的な品質や風格を維持するために、今日このような酒造りは認められていない。

(4)粕(かす)こし清酒　新鮮な酒粕を使った手直しの清酒。

　酒類は国の重要な財源物資なので、高率の酒税が課せられ、密造や過当競争などを防止して、酒税の保全を図るためにその製造、販売はすべて免許制になっている。清酒の税制については、1989年（平成1）4月から3年間の経過措置を置いた92年4月に、それまで用いられてきた特級、1級、2級という級別制度が廃止になり、すべて従量税となった。一方、消費者の品質に対する理解の一助として、吟醸酒、純米酒、本醸造酒を「特定名称清酒」として「清酒の製法品質表示基準」が定められた。

［秋山裕一］

歴史

日本で、米を原料とする酒造りがいつごろから始まったかは明らかではないが、おそらく稲作の伝来に伴って大陸から伝えられたものと思われる。『魏志倭人伝』(ぎしわじんでん)には、3世紀ごろの日本にすでに飲酒の習慣があったことがみえ、「人性酒を嗜(たしな)む」、喪に際して「他人就いて歌舞飲酒す」などと記されている。『大隅(おおすみ)風土記』には、米を嚼(か)んでつくる「口嚼酒(くちかみのさけ)」のあったことがみえ、さらに記紀には応神(おうじん)天皇の代（5世紀）に来日した百済(くだら)人須須許理(すすこり)（別名仁番(にほ)）が初めて醸酒の法を伝えたともある。口嚼酒は、唾液(だえき)中に含まれる糖化酵素を利用して、デンプンをブドウ糖に変え、空気中の酵母が侵入してアルコール発酵が自然におこるのを待つ原始的な酒造りである。酒の醸造を「醸(かも)す」というのは「嚼む」の語に由来するとも、また麹の古語である加無太知(かむたち)（加牟多知）＝カビの生えた状態をいう「カビ立ち」からともいわれる。口嚼酒はすでに消滅している。同じように伝承の酒造りの「醸(か)みし酒」は麹を用いた東洋的醸造法によったものと思われる。その後、酒の製造は奈良、平安時代を通じて朝廷や僧坊で行われ、しだいに民間に広がっていくが、中国、朝鮮からも、新しい酒の製造技術が伝えられて改良されたと思われる。たとえば酒母(しゅぼ)つくり、もろみの三段仕込法、火入れ殺菌法、陶器などの容器、桶作りに用いられる鋸(のこぎり)、鉋(かんな)などの道具類などである。ただ、中国では麹のことを麯子(きょくし)といい、なまの穀類の粗砕粉を水でこねて放置し、主としてリゾープス菌（クモノスカビ）などを生育させて麹とするが、日本では蒸した米に麹菌を生やす点に違いがある。伝来した技術を日本流に改良した点で大いに優れ、日本固有の清酒の誕生となったと思われる。『延喜式(えんぎしき)』（927年完成）には、当時の酒造りに麹と糵(げつ)（米(よね)のもやし）が使われたことがみえ、麦芽の使用も推測される。「清酒(すみざけ)・濁酒(にごりざけ)」の別もみえるが、現在の清酒(せいしゅ)とは異なり、おそらく上澄み程度のものであろう。朝廷では造酒司(さけのつかさ)を設け、白酒(しろき)・黒酒(くろき)などの儀式の酒、供御(くご)用の酒などをつくっていたのである。酒は神事に付き物で、朝廷、寺社中心でつくられていた。

　その後、都市の発達により酒造りもしだいに民間に移り、酒屋が生まれ、14世紀末、足利義満(あしかがよしみつ)のころには、酒税（酒屋役(さかややく)）が課せられるようになった。鎌倉時代には禁酒令も出るほど盛んに酒がつくられるようになり、室町時代の京都には300軒以上の酒屋があったという。江戸時代には「酒屋運上(うんじょう)」「冥加(みょうが)金」という税金が課せられ、酒造家に「酒株(さかかぶ)」を与え、酒造り商を制限し、米の流通調整に役だたせた。明治になって免許鑑札制度、ついで生産石高に応じた造石税(ぞうこくぜい)制度となった。1944年（昭和19）から、酒造所または保税地域から出庫する際に課税する現在の庫(くら)出し税制度になった。酒税は1897年（明治30）ころには国税収入の30％近くを占め、昭和30年代の初めまで10数％で、重要な財源であった。しかし、直接税のウェイトが大きくなり、酒税は3％程度になっている。

［秋山裕一］

酒造技術史

酒造技術的にみると、初めの酒造りは、八岐大蛇(やまたのおろち)の神話に出てくる八塩折(やしおり)の酒（八醞(やしおり)）方式であった。「しおる」とは、熟成したもろみをいったん濾過して酒を得、さらにその酒に米麹と粥(かゆ)を仕込み、発酵させること。「八」は多いの意で、仕込みを何回も繰り返して濃い酒をつくることを示している。米麹を使う「延喜式」方式の造り方は室町時代に入ってさらに改良され、段掛(だんがけ)式や酒母(しゅぼ)（酛(もと)）造りが生まれ、仕込みも二段掛け、三段掛けとなった。『御酒(ごしゅ)之日記』（1355～1489）には水酛(みずもと)や段掛法が記され、奈良興福寺の『多聞院(たもんいん)日記』（1478～1611）の僧英俊(えいしゅん)が書いた室町末期（16世紀後半）の箇所に、今日行われている三段仕込み法や火入れが記されている。火入れは、フランスのパスツールがワインについて行った火入れ殺菌法（パスツーリゼーション）より実に300年もさかのぼることになる。この事実は1881年（明治14）イギリス人アトキンソン（東京大学外国人教師）が著書『日本醸酒編』に、ビールで行われ始めた火入れ法が、すでに日本酒では一般に行われていることを大きな驚きをもって書いている。

　仕込みのスケールも初めは甕(かめ)仕込みで200リットルぐらいであったが、安土(あづち)桃山時代ごろに工具（鉋(かんな)や鋸(のこぎり)）の導入や竹のたがの使用により、十石桶(おけ)（約2キロリットル容）がつくられるようになり、大形化が進んだ。それまで、刀自(とじ)の語が示すように女性の仕事であった酒造りがしだいに男性の専門職（杜氏(とうじ)、現在は女性も増えている）になった。江戸時代には水車精米や寒(かん)造りが行われるようになって、酒造技術は大いに進んだ。それまでは秋の彼岸(ひがん)から春まで酒造りが行われ、温暖季には水酛とか菩提酛(ぼだいもと)といわれる酒母による酵母の育成が行われていた。これは乳酸菌を利用して他の有害菌を抑える方法で、室町時代すでに行われていたが、腐敗による失敗も多く、やがて最適の条件の「寒造り」に絞られていった。従来、寒造りに用いられた生酛(きもと)は、酛すり作業の山卸(やまおろ)しが重労働のため明治末になって改良されて、山卸廃止酛（山廃(やまはい)酛）に変わっていったが、現在ではさらに合理化されて、仕込み水に乳酸を加えた速醸酛を用いる場合が多い。消費地江戸に供給された本場の酒として、初め池田、伊丹(いたみ)が中心であったが、海運の発達もあって灘(なだ)、西宮(にしのみや)などが台頭した。寒造りの技術は、現在の清酒造りの原点で、仕込み配合や三段仕込みなどはいまも方法は変わらない。1904年（明治37）国立の醸造試験所（現、独立行政法人酒類総合研究所、広島県東広島市に所在）が東京の滝野川に設立され、酒造りの科学的研究が行われ、合理的、安全な酒造技術が確立された。

　近代的な酒造では、伝統的な技術や道具が大いに進歩して変わっている。連続式の精米機や蒸し機、もろみの搾り機の開発、さらに立体的四季醸造工場の設置、あるいは大形タンク利用の室外発酵法の採用によって、季節条件に左右されず一年中醸造可能となり、量産化が一段と進み、これら近代工場には昔日の造り酒屋のおもかげはみられなくなった。技術の進歩によって品質は向上したが、一方均質化が進んだ。しかし、近年地酒への回帰もあって、清酒は多様化、個性化の方向に向かっている。

［秋山裕一］

製造法

清酒造りの特色はビールの醸造と比較するとわかりやすい。すなわち、(1)麹で米を糖化する（ビールでは麦芽）、(2)糖化と発酵が1本のタンクで同時に行われる（ビールでは二つの工程を別々に行う）。これを並行複発酵といい、世界に例のない20％もの高濃度のアルコールが生成される。

　製造の概要は次のとおりである。(1)まず玄米を精米して蒸し、(2)麹をつくり、(3)酒母（酛）の育成、すなわち酵母を培養し、(4)もろみを仕込み、約20日間発酵させ、(5)圧搾して粕を分離し、清酒とし、火入れ殺菌して貯蔵する。

　酒造用玄米を精米機にかけて、玄米の目方の約30％を糠(ぬか)として取り除く。この70％精白米を水で洗い、しばらく水に浸して米に適当量の水を吸水させ、水きりして蒸す。大きな釜(かま)にのせた甑(こしき)に米を入れ、30～50分間くらい蒸す。大工場では連続蒸米機を用いる。蒸米の一部を麹にする。麹と蒸米と仕込み水とを混ぜ、これに乳酸（0.5％）と清酒酵母とを加えて発酵させ酒母（速醸酛）をつくる。この酒母に米麹、蒸米、水を3回に分けて仕込む（三段仕込み）。初添(はつぞえ)（単に添と通称）、仲(なか)添、留(とめ)添というが、毎回の仕込み量はほぼ倍、倍というルールがある。こうして仕込んだもろみは、初め8℃くらいから1日1℃くらいずつ温度を上げ、15℃くらいにして発酵を進める。発酵により1日約1％のアルコールが生成され、20日間くらいでもろみのアルコール分は18～20％に達し、熟成する。この間にもろみは泡を生じ、岩泡、高泡、落(おち)泡、地(じ)泡、玉泡などとさまざまな様相をみせる（もろみに泡を生じない、泡なし酵母も開発されている）。熟成もろみは酒袋に5リットルくらいずつ入れ、槽(ふね)（圧搾機）に入れ圧搾する。搾ってから1～2か月間静置して、滓(おり)を分離して清澄にし、この新酒を互いにブレンドし、60～63℃に火入れして、タンクに貯蔵し調熟を図る。通常、熟成もろみにアルコールを添加する（アル添酒）が、一部にはアルコール調味液を加えて増醸を行う（三増酒）。

［秋山裕一］

酒質の変化、成分と味

水車で米を搗(つ)いていた江戸時代や明治の初めの酒はどんな酒質であったか知るよしもないが、1877年（明治10）からは分析値が出てくる。そのころの酒は日本酒度＋(プラス)10以上、アルコール分13～17％、酸度は4以上、糖分はほとんどなく、非常に辛口であった（日本酒度は比重を示す用語で、0を境に、＋(プラス)の数値が大きいほど比重が軽く、糖分が少ないため辛口、－(マイナス)が大きいほど甘口）。1907年（明治40）ころの品評会では、日本酒度＋(プラス)10、酸度3.0、アルコール分17％、エキス分3くらいであった（エキス分とは不揮発成分のことで主成分は糖分、数値が大きいほど甘口となる）。大正末期には日本酒度＋(プラス)3、酸度2.8、エキス分4としだいにエキス分が増し、昭和に入って1935年（昭和10）ころには濃い酒、うまい酒の指導が行われて、日本酒度－(マイナス)10、酸度2.5、エキス分7という酒質のものが上位を占めた。このころは日本の酒は甘口から格別な辛口（鬼殺し）までいろいろあったと思われる。日本酒度というのは酒の比重を示す用語であり、ボーメの比重計の1度を10倍に目盛ったもので、水より重いほうに－(マイナス)、軽いほうに＋(プラス)をつける。したがって昭和以前の酒は＋(プラス)で、エキス分が少なく辛いことを示している。酸も今日の酒に比べるとはるかに多い。第二次世界大戦後、経済の復興と技術の進歩によって、酒質の変化は大きい。1960年（昭和35）ころまで、70年ころまで、70～75年、75～80年、80年以降と大別して変化がみられる。60年ころまでは旧来の酒のタイプが維持され、灘の酒には日本酒度＋(プラス)が多く、伏見(ふしみ)の酒は－(マイナス)7くらいであった。酸度は両者とも2.0で両銘醸地の酒質は相当違っていた。60年ころからしだいに甘口化の傾向が進み、酸度もしだいに減少した。灘の日本酒度が＋(プラス)から－(マイナス)3～5に、伏見は－(マイナス)7、酸度は1.7であった。70年ころから日本酒度は平均－(マイナス)7で灘、伏見に差があまりみられなくなり、酸度も1.7～1.4くらいになってきた。酒の色も急激に薄くなった。75年ころには甘口化が進み、日本酒度－(マイナス)6、酸度1.4と均質化が分析上にも現れ、批判を浴びるようになった。80年以降では酸と糖分と味覚との関係が示され、平均的な市販酒は日本酒度0、酸度1.4と淡麗化の様相がみられ、一方個性化も進展している。また、食生活の多様化に伴い、清酒も純米酒、本醸造酒、辛口酒、多酸酒、アルコール分の低い酒など各種が出回り、日本酒度と酸度との組合せで、味の点で以前より幅が生まれている。日本酒度＋(プラス)10～－(マイナス)7（平均0）、酸度で1.1～2.4（平均1.4）の変化がつき、バランスのとれた多様の酒が生まれている。

　清酒の味については、甘辛が真っ先にいわれるようにたいせつな要素である。甘さの味覚は糖濃度に左右されることはもちろんであるが、酸味の影響も大きい。酸の多い場合は甘味を弱く感じ、酸の少ないときには糖分が少なくても甘口に感じる。甘味は体温ぐらいがもっともよく感じ、低温になると鈍くなる。また、濃醇(のうじゅん)味については、甘口で酸が増すと濃い口に、反対になると淡麗な薄味に感じる。

［秋山裕一］

清酒の生産・消費

江戸時代の文化・文政(ぶんかぶんせい)期（1804～30）、灘から江戸へ積み出された「下(くだ)り酒」は100万樽(たる)（1樽は4斗）といわれ、おそらく江戸では年間で平均1人1樽くらい飲まれたものと推測される。明治時代には1万近い業者があり、400万石（72万キロリットル）がつくられ、1919年（大正8）には約600万石（106万キロリットル）を記録している。1932、33年（昭和7、8）ころは70万キロリットルで、第二次世界大戦によって生産は統制を受け、47年には10万キロリットルとなった。戦後、経済の復興とともに急速に回復し、55年に年間消費量約48万キロリットル、60年に71万キロリットル、65年に約120万キロリットルとなった。69年から構造改善事業による近代化を進め、70年には153万キロリットル、75年には最高の167万キロリットルを記録した。以後消費量は停滞・減少傾向で、96年（平成8）の消費量は120万キロリットル台となっている。

［秋山裕一］

清酒の表示

酒類の表示には、製造者、所在地、製造時期、容量、酒類の種類、アルコール分が明示されることになっており、また添加物の表示も定められているが、今日合成保存料はいっさい使用されていないので、その表記はない。1990年（平成2）に制定された特定名称清酒について製法品質表示基準により、吟醸(ぎんじょう)酒、純米酒、本醸造酒の区別が定められ、また日本酒造組合中央会は清酒の表示に関する基準を定め、原材料、製造方法などの表示を行っている。原材料については、米・米麹・醸造アルコール・醸造用糖類の4原料で、(1)純米酒は米・米麹と、(2)増醸酒の混和されたものは4原料を、(3)本醸造酒、吟醸酒、普通アル添酒では、米・米麹・醸造アルコールと表示する。製法品質表示について、原料表示は前記に従い、特定名称清酒では(1)吟醸酒は精米歩合60％以下、大吟醸酒は50％以下で、ともに低温発酵など吟醸造りにより固有の香味色沢をもつもの、(2)純米酒は精米歩合70％以下で香味色沢良好なもの、純米吟醸酒、純米大吟醸酒は前記の表示の通り。(3)本醸造酒は精米歩合70％以下で香味色沢良好なもの。本醸造酒のアルコール使用量は白米重量の10％以下とする。「手づくり」は、伝来の方法によってつくった清酒。「樽酒」は、杉樽に入れて杉香のついた酒。「原酒」は、もろみを圧搾してから加水などしない清酒で、市販の原酒にはアルコール分が高く20％に近いものが多い。

　清酒にはさまざまのタイプがある。もっとも一般的なのは甘口酒、辛口酒の別である。辛口の最たるものを鬼殺しという。多酸酒は酸味の強い酒をいう。赤い酒は、ピンク色の清酒で、モナスクスという真紅の色素を生成するカビで米麹をつくり、これでつくった酒。活性清酒は濁り酒ともいい、もろみを荒漉(ご)しし、滓のあるまま（発酵ガスの入ったまま）の酒で、昔の「どぶろく」を思わせる。炭酸ガスの泡がたつのでこの名がある。冷用酒（冷酒）は夏季に冷やして飲む淡麗型（吟醸型）の清酒。冷蔵庫に入れ、あるいはオンザロックで飲む。生酒(なまざけ)はもろみを搾って無菌濾過し、火入れをしないフレッシュな酒で、発酵香が高い。生(なま)貯蔵酒は生酒を低温貯蔵しておき、瓶詰のおりに瞬間殺菌して生酒の風味を残した清酒。貴醸酒(きじょうしゅ)は、仕込み水のかわりに清酒で仕込んだ清酒。日本酒度－(マイナス)40～50、酸度3、アルコール分18％。中国の老酒(ラオチウ)にも紹興酒(シャオシンチウ)で仕込んだ善醸老酒(シャンニャンラオチウ)があり、濃醇で貴重な酒とされている。

［秋山裕一］

銘醸地と杜氏

清酒は全国各地の風土、生活習慣に基づいて生まれ、長い間にそれぞれの地方色がはぐくまれている。太平洋側の高知県と日本海側の富山・新潟県が辛口で、これはそれぞれ海の幸、生活様式によるものと思われる。瀬戸内海に面した県は甘口で、いかにも穏やかな地帯の共通面を示している。北海道、東北3県（秋田・青森・山形）もすこし違った内容であるが淡麗型である。一方、中部山岳地帯の岐阜・長野・群馬・栃木県の酒はだいたい濃い口の酒が多い。

　銘醸地は全国各地にあるが、最大級は灘と伏見(ふしみ)である。灘は、兵庫県西宮市の今津、西宮と神戸市の魚崎(うおさき)、御影(みかげ)、新在家(しんざいけ)の5郷（灘五郷）からなる。ここには1997年（平成9）には40数社が集中し、出荷高上位10社のうち7社があり、全国清酒の約3割（約42万キロリットル）が出荷されている。有名銘柄として白鶴(はくつる)、大関、日本盛、白雪、菊正宗、白鹿(はくしか)、澤之鶴、剣菱(けんびし)、桜正宗(まさむね)、富久娘(ふくむすめ)、多聞(たもん)などがある。灘には、江戸時代、海運が盛んになって大消費地江戸への千石船による江戸積み（下り酒といった）の地の利と、宮水(みやみず)という良水、良質の播州米(ばんしゅうまい)、吉野杉の樽、桶、丹波(たんば)杜氏の技能、六甲(ろっこう)の寒風など酒造りに好条件がそろっていた。酒質は男酒といわれているように、辛甘両様であるが、押し、幅のある酒質である。

　京都は、酒の神様、松尾(まつのお)大社のある太秦あたりが中心であったといわれる。しかし安土桃山から江戸時代に伏見が商業の町として発展し、桃山丘陵から発する豊富な軟水によって酒造りの中心地となり豊かなまるみのある甘口の酒がつくられている。32社が約17万キロリットルを出荷し、有名銘柄に月桂冠(げっけいかん)、黄桜(きざくら)、松竹梅、富翁(とみおう)、玉乃光、月の桂(かつら)などがある。

　広島県の酒は西条(さいじょう)を中心として、軟水による独特の醸造法を開発して有名になり、全国品評会でも頭角を現している。甘口の広がりのある酒、賀茂鶴(かもつる)、白牡丹(はくぼたん)、福美人、亀齢(きれい)などがある。

　秋田県の酒は米どころをバックに精白をよくし、口あたりのよい、膨らみのある味を掲げ、大正のころより東京進出を図ってきている。爛漫(らんまん)、両関、太平山(たいへいざん)、新政(あらまさ)、飛良泉(ひらいずみ)、高清水(たかしみず)などがある。

　東北地方には銘醸地が多く、八戸(はちのへ)（桃川）、盛岡（あさ開(びらき)）、会津（会津ほまれ、榮川(えいせん)、末廣(すえひろ)）、鶴岡市（大山(おおやま)、出羽ノ雪）などが有名である。

　このほか辛口の醸造地として高知（司牡丹(つかさぼたん)、土佐鶴）、熊本（美少年、瑞鷹(ずいよう)、香露(こうろ)）があり、長野は清冽(せいれつ)な酒（真澄(ますみ)）を産する。日本海側は白身の魚、雪の風土らしいさらりとした酒質で、新潟・富山県では辛口の越乃寒梅(こしのかんばい)、吉乃川(よしのがわ)、朝日山、越の誉(こしのほまれ)、立山、銀盤(ぎんばん)などを産する。石川県は加賀文化の影響と思われる穏やかな膨らみのある酒質で、福正宗、萬歳楽(まんざいらく)、日栄(にちえい)、菊姫(きくひめ)、変わったタイプの宗玄(そうげん)などがある。吟醸酒は各県に二、三の代表作があるが、近年名声を得ているのは熊本県の香露、大分県の西の関、愛媛県の梅錦(うめにしき)、宮城県の浦霞(うらかすみ)などであろう。

　酒造技能者の頭を杜氏という。あるいは技能者の総称をいう場合もある。雪深い山村出身者が多く、冬季の出稼ぎの形をとっている。杜氏は自分といっしょに働く人を集め、統率し、仕事の監督をする。杜氏は出身地を冠してよばれている。南部(なんぶ)杜氏（岩手県）、山内(さんない)杜氏（秋田県）、越後(えちご)杜氏（新潟県）、能登(のと)杜氏（石川県能登）、諏訪(すわ)杜氏（長野県諏訪）、丹波杜氏（兵庫県篠山(ささやま)。灘地区の主力杜氏）、但馬(たじま)杜氏（兵庫県）、備中(びっちゅう)杜氏（岡山県）、秋鹿(あいか)杜氏（島根県出雲(いずも)）、三津(みつ)杜氏（広島県）、伊方(いかた)杜氏（愛媛県）、三潴(みずま)杜氏（福岡県）などがおもな杜氏で、それぞれの地方を担当し、特有の流儀をもち、個性ある酒造りに努力している。

［秋山裕一］

飲み方

日本酒というと「燗(かん)」といわれるように、徳利で燗をつけ猪口(ちょこ)で飲む。ぬる燗で42℃、普通で45℃、熱燗で50℃くらいである。杯(さかずき)につぐと10℃くらい下がる。冷酒は『養生訓』に「夏冬ともに温酒を飲むべし、冷酒はよくない」と書かれているが、燗をしたほうがゆっくり飲むことになるからと思われる。また当時の酒は酸味が強く、甘味がないため、温めたほうが飲みやすくなったこともあろう。冷酒は口あたりがよく早く飲み、量を過ごすようになるので注意が必要である。近年は酒質が淡麗になり、生活様式も簡便になったこともあり、冷酒が多くなっている。グラスに氷を入れ、オンザロックにして飲む場合も多い。吟醸タイプの酒は燗をつけると香りがたちすぎるから、冷酒かオンザロックがよい。季節により、気分により冷燗いずれもよく、料理によって酒質をかえ、グラスをかえるのもおもしろい。

［秋山裕一］

『坂口謹一郎著『日本の酒』（岩波新書）』▽『住江金之著『日本の酒』（1962・河出書房新社）』▽『柚木学著『日本酒の歴史』（1975・雄山閣出版）』▽『加藤辨三郎編『日本の酒の歴史』（1977・研成社）』▽『『東京大学公開講座22　酒』（1976・東京大学出版会）』▽『秋山裕一著『酒つくりの話』（1984・技報堂出版）』▽『秋山裕一著『日本酒』（1994・岩波新書）』▽『吉沢実祐著『日本酒案内』（1997・小学館）』