Dutch philosopher. Born in Amsterdam on November 24th, the son of a wealthy Jewish merchant. [Akihiro Sakai November 17, 2015] LifeHe studied Hebrew and the scriptures at a Jewish school and was exposed to the mystical ideas of Kabbalah, but after graduation he studied Latin, physics, geometry and Cartesian new philosophy under the physician Franciscus van den Enden (1602-1674), gradually becoming inclined towards heretical Western thought. After his father's death (1654), he succeeded him as a merchant, but in March 1656, at the age of 23, he was excommunicated by the Jewish community for "bad opinions and actions" and expelled from Jewish society. After that, he devoted himself to academic research, moving around various parts of the Netherlands. He wrote "Short Treatises" and "De Improvemie der Intellect" and published "Principles of Philosophy of Descartes" (1663). There is a legend that Spinoza "earned a living by polishing lenses and devoted his leisure time entirely to contemplation." However, even if he loved a solitary and simple life, Spinoza was not actually isolated from the society of his time, nor did he suffer from extreme poverty. During Louis XIV's invasion of the Netherlands in 1672, Jan de With, a republican leader who was in political opposition to William III of Orange, who sought to become the tyrant of the Netherlands, was massacred by an incited mob. It is said that Spinoza deeply lamented de With's sudden death. It was against this social background that "Theological-Political Treatise" (1670) was published anonymously. This work defended freedom of thought against the intolerance of theologians, and for this purpose called for the independence of political power from religious authority, but for example, it denied that the "Five Books of Moses" were written by Moses himself, claiming that they were compiled later, which led to severe criticism from theologians as a blasphemous book. As a result, not only was it impossible to publish his main work, "Ethics" (completed in 1675), which took 15 years to complete, during his lifetime, but Spinoza's philosophy itself was buried like a "dead dog" for 100 years after his death. In 1673, Spinoza was invited to become a professor of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg, but he firmly declined the offer, citing the difficulty of combining teaching with research and fearing that his own freedom to philosophize would be restricted. He died in The Hague on February 20, 1677, at the age of 44, with "The Republic" (1675) being his last work. [Akihiro Sakai November 17, 2015] ThoughtIt is well known that Novalis described Spinoza as "a man intoxicated with God," but the reason he was feared as a materialist and atheist even after his death was that he believed that his God was not a personal God as in Christianity, but "God or nature" (Deus sive natura, in Latin). All things, including mind and matter, are manifestations of God, various modes of a single infinite substance, and everything arises by God's internal necessity, so there is no free will or chance for humans. Spinoza sought to explore the true and highest happiness of humans from this fatalistic standpoint. According to Spinoza, the real essence of individual things is the "striving for self-preservation" (conatus se conservandi), and desire is nothing other than the effort of human beings to preserve themselves. However, as long as this desire is determined by imperfect sensory perception, humans are under the control of external objects and cannot escape from the state of slavery to emotions. However, in addition to such passive emotions, there are active emotions that accompany the intellectual activity of the mind itself, and when humans determine their desires through their own rational perception, they are free. This is because, according to Spinoza, freedom means acting only according to the necessity of one's own nature. The highest function of human reason is to intuit individual things in their necessary relationship with God as the ultimate cause of things, that is, "under the specie of eternity" (sub specie aeternitatis), and the sense of self-sufficiency that accompanies this is "intellectual love for God." Herein lies the highest ideal of morality. This is because man's love for God is part of the "intellectual love of God" (amor Dei intellectualis) (Latin), in which God loves himself through man, who is his mode, and at the same time, inasmuch as man is a transformation of God, it is nothing other than "God's love for man." [Akihiro Sakai November 17, 2015] "Ethics, translated by Hatanaka Hisashi, in two volumes; Theological and Political Treatises, in two volumes; On the State; On the Improvement of the Intellect; Short Essays on God, Man, and Human Happiness; Descartes's Philosophical Principles; Collection of Letters from Spinoza (all published by Iwanami Bunko)" ▽ "The Philosophy of Spinoza, written by Katsura Juichi (1956, University of Tokyo Press)" ▽ "The Philosophy of Excommunication, written by Shimizu Reiko (1978, Misuzu Shobo)" ▽ "The Intellectual Heritage of Mankind 35: Spinoza, written by Kudo Kisaku (1979, Kodansha)" ▽ "The Philosophy of Spinoza, written by Joseph Moreau, translated by Takeuchi Yoshitomo (Hakusuisha, Que sais-je Bunko)" [Reference] |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
オランダの哲学者。11月24日裕福なユダヤ人商人の子として、アムステルダムに生まれる。 [坂井昭宏 2015年11月17日] 生涯ユダヤ教団の学校でヘブライ語と聖典を学び、カバラの神秘思想にも接したが、卒業後は医師ファン・デン・エンデンFranciscus van den Enden(1602―1674)に就いてラテン語、自然学、幾何学およびデカルト新哲学を学び、しだいに異端的な西欧思想に傾斜していった。父の死後(1654)、彼はその後を継いで商人となっていたが、1656年3月、23歳のとき、「悪い意見と行動」のゆえにユダヤ教団から破門の宣告を受け、ユダヤ人社会から追放された。その後、オランダ各地を転々として学問研究に専念。『短論文』や『知性改善論』を執筆し、『デカルトの哲学原理』(1663)を出版した。 スピノザには「レンズ磨きを生活の糧(かて)とし、余暇はひたすら思索に没頭した」という伝説がある。しかし、たとえ孤独で簡素な生活を愛したとしても、スピノザは実際には当時の社会から孤立していたのでも、また極貧にあえいでいたのでもなかった。1672年ルイ14世のオランダ侵略に際して、オランダの専制君主たろうとするオラニエ公ウィレム3世(ウィリアム3世)と政治的に対立していた共和派の指導者ヤン・デ・ウィットは、扇動された暴徒によって虐殺された。このときスピノザはデ・ウィットの横死を激しく嘆き悲しんだという。『神学政治論』(1670)が匿名で刊行されたのは、このような社会的背景においてである。この著作は神学者の不寛容に対して思想の自由を擁護し、この目的のために政治的権力の宗教的権威からの独立を要求したが、たとえば「モーセ五書」がモーセ自身の手になることを否定し、後世の編集によると主張したために、涜神(とくしん)の書として神学者たちの厳しい非難を浴びた。そのため、15年の歳月を費やして完成された主著『エチカ』(1675年成立)を、生前に刊行することが不可能になったばかりでなく、スピノザ哲学そのものが死後100年もの間、「死せる犬」のように葬り去られることになった。 スピノザは1673年、ハイデルベルク大学の哲学教授として招聘(しょうへい)されたが、教育と研究とは両立しがたいという理由により、また、彼自身の哲学する自由が制限されるのを危惧(きぐ)してこれを固辞し、『国家論』(1675)を最後の著作として、1677年2月20日ハーグで没した。44歳であった。 [坂井昭宏 2015年11月17日] 思想ノバーリスがスピノザを「神に酔える人」と評したことは有名であるが、彼が死後に至るまで唯物論者、無神論者として恐れられたのは、彼の神がキリスト教的な人格神ではなく、「神すなわち自然」Deus sive natura(ラテン語)と考えたからである。万物は精神も物体も含めてすべて神の現れ、唯一の無限実体の諸様態であり、いっさいは神の内的必然によって生起するから、人間の自由意志も偶然もまったく存在しない。スピノザはこのような宿命論にたって、人間の真の最高の幸福を探究しようとするのである。 スピノザによれば、個物の現実的本質は「自己保存の努力」conatus se conservandi(ラテン語)にあり、欲望とは人間の自己保存の努力そのものにほかならないが、この欲望が不完全な感覚的認識によって決定される限り、人間は外的対象の支配下にあり、感情への隷属状態を脱することができない。しかし、感情にはこのような受動感情のほかに、精神自体の知的活動に伴う能動感情があり、自己自身の理性的認識によって欲望を決定するとき、人間は自由である。自由とは、スピノザによれば、自己の本性の必然性によってのみ働くことをいうからである。ところで、人間理性の最高の働きとは、事物の究極的原因としての神との必然的関係において、つまり「永遠の相の下に」sub specie aeternitatis(ラテン語)個物を直観することであり、これに伴う自足感こそが「神に対する知的愛」なのである。ここに道徳の最高の理想がある。というのは、人間の神に対する愛とは、神がその様態である人間を介して自己自身を愛する「神の知的愛」amor Dei intellectualis(ラテン語)の一部であり、同時に人間が神の変容である限り、「人間に対する神の愛」にほかならないからである。 [坂井昭宏 2015年11月17日] 『畠中尚志訳『エチカ』全2冊、『神学・政治論』全2冊、『国家論』、『知性改善論』、『神・人間及び人間の幸福に関する短論文』、『デカルトの哲学原理』、『スピノザ往復書簡集』(いずれも岩波文庫)』▽『桂壽一著『スピノザの哲学』(1956・東京大学出版会)』▽『清水禮子著『破門の哲学』(1978・みすず書房)』▽『工藤喜作著『人類の知的遺産35 スピノザ』(1979・講談社)』▽『ジョゼフ・モロー著、竹内良知訳『スピノザ哲学』(白水社・文庫クセジュ)』 [参照項目] |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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