Human Trafficking - Bye-bye to human trafficking

Japanese: 人身売買 - じんしんばいばい
Human Trafficking - Bye-bye to human trafficking

The buying and selling of human beings as if they were goods. Sold human beings become the property of the buyer and are used for the buyer's profits, so they are deprived of basic human rights (right to freedom, right to pursue happiness, etc.) and are not recognized as having human dignity or personality. This type of human trafficking has taken various forms in various countries from ancient times to modern times, such as the buying and selling of slaves and indentured servitude, but in modern times it has come to be prohibited as the most inhumane act.

[Shigeru Yamate]

Human trafficking around the world

In ancient Greece and Rome, domestic slaves were privatized and were subject to gifting, buying and selling, and inheritance. Furthermore, as mining and olive and grape cultivation became more popular, the demand for labor slaves to work there increased, and slaves became commodified. Sources of slaves included conquered peoples and prisoners of war, free people who could not repay their debts, family members sold by the head of the household to pay taxes, and women and children who were kidnapped or taken.

In the Middle Ages, Islamic merchants began selling black Africans as slaves, and in the second half of the 15th century, Portuguese merchants began selling black slaves to European royal courts. It is said that the primitive accumulation of Western capitalism was carried out by utilizing black slave labor. Parts of the coast of the Gulf of Guinea in Africa were once known as the Slave Coast, and slave traders from Britain, France, the Netherlands and other countries who hunted slaves from the African continent made huge profits. It is estimated that 15 million black slaves were sold to the American market by them over a period of 300 years.

In Asian countries such as India and China, slave buying and selling has been practiced since ancient times, and human trafficking continues to this day through methods such as adoption. In 2000, the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly and came into force in 2003. In Japan, it was approved by the Diet in 2005. However, human trafficking and sexual exploitation have not disappeared, and according to the Report on Forced Labour published by the International Labour Organization in June 2012, approximately 21 million people are forced to work around the world. Of this, sexual exploitation accounts for 22% of the total, and by region, the Asia-Pacific region is the largest, accounting for 56% of the total.

[Shigeru Yamate]

Human Trafficking in Japan

In Japan, human trafficking has taken various forms from ancient times to the present. We can learn about ancient slaves from the descriptions of "Seikou" in the Gishiwajinden (Records of the Wa People), and "Nu" in the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) and Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan). The Ritsuryo (Chinese Code) documents of the Taika Reform contain provisions regarding the slave system, and there are records of slaves being bought and sold for 1,000 bundles of rice per person. These slaves were transformed into serfs during the manor period. Wars, famines, and heavy taxes caused many runaway slaves, while kidnapping and abducting women and children to sell them was rampant. People were also used as collateral for loans of money, and when the hostages could not be repaid, they were enslaved. In the Edo period, the shogunate banned human trafficking, but allowed the sale of young girls to collect taxes, and many women sold into prostitution became employed as prostitutes. The indentured servitude system was also established, where women were bound to debts and physically tied to labor or housework.

The Meiji government issued several bans on human trafficking, including a ban on selling children to Chinese people in 1870 (Meiji 3) and the Emancipation of Prostitutes in 1872. However, old practices continued in the form of geisha contracts that were like human trafficking, and human trafficking contracts disguised as adoptions. Meanwhile, as the silk-reeling and spinning industries developed, young girls and children from rural areas were exploited in a slave-like state, with small advance loans. They were forced to work more than 10 hours a day and live in dormitories that were like prisons, and escapees were subjected to brutal lynchings. Due to the harsh working and living conditions, many female factory workers died of tuberculosis and other diseases. In order to protect female and young workers in such conditions, the Factory Act was enacted in 1911 (Meiji 44), but its effectiveness was not easily achieved. Even in the Showa era, human trafficking continued in poor rural areas during the recession.

Human trafficking was completely abolished in Japan after the Second World War, when democratization policies were promoted and awareness of human rights spread among the people. The Constitution of Japan guarantees respect for the individual (Article 13) and freedom from slavery and hard labor (Article 18). Traditional slavery systems, such as the octopus room in Hokkaido, the barn system in Kyushu's coal mining areas, and indentured servitude with advance loans, were dismantled with the establishment of labor-related laws and the development of the labor union movement. Human trafficking, which was hidden in the adopted child system, such as the Nanking Boys on Tobishima Island in Yamagata Prefecture and the Kajiko on Oshima Island (Yashiro Island) in Yamaguchi Prefecture, was also cracked down on as a violation of the Child Welfare Act (Act No. 164 of 1947) and disappeared. In addition, a new crime of human trafficking was created with the revision of the Criminal Code in 2005 (Act No. 66 of 2005). This makes it possible to crack down on human trafficking itself, including cross-border trafficking such as buying, selling, selling, and transporting people overseas.

[Shigeru Yamate]

Prostitution and human trafficking

However, the problem of human trafficking related to prostitution, i.e. slavery-like confinement, is difficult to solve, and despite the various measures taken, it has continued to exist to this day, albeit in different forms. In 1946 (Showa 21), the occupying forces issued a "Memorandum on the Abolition of Public Prostitution in Japan," stating that the public prostitution system was against democracy, but the Japanese government, at a meeting of vice ministers, decided on a policy to preserve the former brothels and the public prostitution system in the "red light districts" under the pretext of cracking down on private prostitution. While the occupying forces publicly criticized the public prostitution system, they secretly needed prostitutes for their soldiers. However, after the Prostitution Prevention Law (Law No. 118 of 1956) was promulgated in May 1956 and fully implemented in April 1958, human trafficking related to prostitution dropped dramatically. However, even after the new crime of human trafficking was enacted in 2005, human trafficking-related prostitution involving organized crime groups and foreign women continues to occur.

[Shigeru Yamate]

"The Structure of Prostitution and Human Trafficking" by Shinjiro Maeda (1958, Dobun Shoin)""The Genealogy of Human Trafficking in Early Modern Japan" by Hidemasa Maki (1970, Sobunsha)""Human Trafficking" by Hidemasa Maki (Iwanami Shinsho)

[Reference items] | Red light area | Factory law | Emancipation order for prostitutes | Slavery | Prostitution | Human trafficking | Prostitutes

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

人間を物と同じように売買すること。売られた人間は、買い主に所有され、その利益のために使用されるので、人間としての基本的権利(自由権、幸福追求権など)を奪われ、人間としての尊厳や人格を認められない。このような人身売買は、古代から近代に至るまで、奴隷の売買、前借年季奉公などさまざまな形で、各国において行われたが、現代ではもっとも非人道的行為として禁止されるようになっている。

[山手 茂]

世界の人身売買

古代ギリシア・ローマ時代には、家内奴隷が私有化され、贈与、売買、相続の対象とされていた。さらに鉱山の発掘やオリーブ、ブドウの栽培が盛んになり、それらに従事する労働奴隷の需要が増大するにつれて、奴隷の商品化が進んだ。奴隷の供給源は、征服された民族や戦争の捕虜のほかに、負債を返済できない自由民、納税のため家長に売られた家族や、略取・誘拐された婦女子などであった。

 中世には、イスラム商人がアフリカの黒人を奴隷として売るようになり、15世紀後半になると、ポルトガル商人が黒人奴隷をヨーロッパの宮廷に売り込み始めた。欧米の資本主義の原始的蓄積は、黒人奴隷労働を利用することによって強行されたといわれている。アフリカのギニア湾沿岸の一部はかつて奴隷海岸といわれ、アフリカ大陸から奴隷を狩り集めたイギリス、フランス、オランダなどの奴隷業者は巨利を博した。彼らによってアメリカ市場に売られた黒人奴隷は、300年間に1500万人に上ると推計されている。

 インドや中国などアジア諸国でも、古代から奴隷の売買が行われ、最近に至るまで養子の形をとるなどの方法により人身売買が続けられている。2000年に「国際的な組織犯罪の防止に関する国際連合条約を補足する人(特に女性及び児童)の取引を防止し、抑止し及び処罰するための議定書」が国連総会で採択され、2003年に発効した。日本では2005年(平成7)に国会で承認されている。しかし依然として人身売買や性的搾取はなくならず、2012年6月に国際労働機関が発表した「強制労働に関する報告書」によると、世界中で約2100万人が労働を強要されている。そのうち性的搾取は全体の22%を、地域別にはアジア・太平洋地域がもっとも多く全体の56%を占めている。

[山手 茂]

日本の人身売買

日本でも古代から最近に至るまで、さまざまな形で人身売買が行われてきた。古代の奴隷については、『魏志倭人伝(ぎしわじんでん)』の「生口(せいこう)」や『古事記』『日本書紀』の「奴(ぬ)」の記述によって知ることができる。大化改新の律令(りつりょう)文書に、奴婢(ぬひ)の制度に関する規定があり、当時一人当り稲1000束で奴隷を売買した記録が残っている。この奴婢は、荘園(しょうえん)時代には農奴に転化した。戦乱、飢饉(ききん)、重税に苦しんで逃亡奴隷が続出し、他方では婦女子を略取・誘拐して売り飛ばす人さらいや人買が横行した。また、人身を抵当にして金銭の貸借が行われて、返済できない場合、人質を奴隷化することも生じた。江戸時代になると、幕府は人身売買を禁じたが、年貢上納のための娘の身売りは認め、多くの身売り女性による遊女奉公が広がった。また、前借金に縛られ人身の拘束を受けて労働や家事に従事する年季奉公制度が確立した。

 明治政府は、1870年(明治3)に児童を中国人に売ることを禁止し、1872年に娼妓(しょうぎ)解放令を出すなど、幾度も人身売買に関する禁令を出した。しかし、人身売買的な芸娼妓契約や、養子に仮装した人身売買契約などの形で古い慣行が続けられていた。一方、製糸・紡績業が発達するに伴い、農村の年少女子が、わずかの前借金によって奴隷的状態に置かれ、搾取されるようになった。労働時間は1日十数時間で、牢獄(ろうごく)のような寄宿舎での生活を強制され、逃亡者は残虐なリンチを受けた。過酷な労働・生活条件のため、結核などで病死する女工が続出した。このような状態の女子・年少労働者を保護するため、1911年(明治44)に工場法が制定されたが、その効果は容易にはあがらなかった。昭和になっても、不況期には貧困農村で人身売買が行われた。

 日本において人身売買が全面的に廃止されたのは、第二次世界大戦後、民主化政策が推進され、国民のなかに人権意識が浸透してからである。日本国憲法は、個人の尊重(13条)、奴隷的拘束および苦役からの自由(18条)を保障している。北海道のたこ部屋、九州炭鉱地の納屋制度、前借付きの年季奉公など、伝統的な奴隷的拘束制度は、労働関係法制の整備や労働組合運動の発展によって解体された。山形県飛島の南京(ナンキン)小僧、山口県大島(屋代(やしろ)島)の梶子(かじこ)など、もらい子制度に隠れた人身売買も、児童福祉法(昭和22年法律第164号)違反として取り締まられ消滅した。また2005年(平成17)の刑法改正(平成17年法律第66号)により、人身売買罪が新設された。これにより、買い受け、売買、売り渡し、国外移送など、国境をこえた人身売買も含め、人身売買そのものを取り締まることができるようになった。

[山手 茂]

売春と人身売買

しかし、売春に関連する人身売買=奴隷的拘束問題は解決困難であり、さまざまな対策が講じられたにもかかわらず、形態を変えながら今日まで存続している。1946年(昭和21)占領軍は、公娼制度は民主主義に反するとして「日本に於(お)ける公娼廃止に関する覚書」を発したが、日本政府は次官会議によって、私娼取締りを名目として旧遊廓(ゆうかく)と公娼制度を「赤線地帯」に温存する方針を決定した。占領軍は、表面では公娼制度を非難しながら、裏面では占領軍将兵のための売春婦を必要としていた。しかし売春防止法(昭和31年法律第118号)が、1956年5月公布され、1958年4月全面施行されてのち、売春に関係ある人身売買は激減した。だが、2005年(平成17)の人身売買罪新設ののちも、暴力団関連、外国女性関連の人身売買的売春は、後を絶っていない。

[山手 茂]

『前田信二郎著『売春と人身売買の構造』(1958・同文書院)』『牧英正著『近世日本の人身売買の系譜』(1970・創文社)』『牧英正著『人身売買』(岩波新書)』

[参照項目] | 赤線区域 | 工場法 | 娼妓解放令 | 奴隷制 | 売春 | 人買 | 遊女

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