Craftsman - Shokunin

Japanese: 職人 - しょくにん

A craftsman is someone who produces handmade goods for customers using specialized craft techniques and tools. There is a long history before such craftsmen came into existence in Japan. In primitive society, craft techniques and tools were linked to hunting, fishing, and farming, and the adult layer of the community produced goods freely and self-sufficiently for all community members. In ancient times, from the 3rd century, some people who held the skills became artisans, who were forced to produce handmade goods for the nobility during the farming off-season. They were unfree handmade producers who had the techniques but no tools.

In the 12th century, at the end of the Heian period, wage work was established, which was the catalyst for the birth of craftsmen. In general, there was a professional differentiation from farmers in fields with high demand, and several types of jobs were created. They had the skills and tools, but the raw materials were provided by the client, and they processed and produced the products and received wages. From the 14th century in the Middle Ages, a type of work called "paid work" began, in which they secured a certain amount of raw materials, produced products by hand, and received payment. There were two types of work for craftsmen: carpenters and plasterers who worked for a living, and joiners and seamstresses who worked at home. Wages were initially paid by the piecework, but eventually became hourly. The working hours were 14 hours a day. Craftsmen, both in cities and villages, were subordinate to the lords, and their management and livelihood were guaranteed. Organizations called "za" were one example. Apprenticeship-like relationships for the transmission of skills and awareness of skills were also established. Craftsmen were constantly differentiating from farmers. From the 17th century, craftsmen were able to maintain their businesses and livelihoods in castle towns and other cities that were the bases of feudal lords, through the protection and control of organizations called nakama. However, nakama were horizontal organizations designed to monopolize profits for masters of a particular trade, and the apprenticeship system was a vertical organization for craftsmen, allowing the masters to act arbitrarily, such as through family business structures, and there was no limit to the length of apprenticeship. There was a growing demand for horizontal organizations among ordinary craftsmen, and from the 18th century, unions were formed among all craftsmen, including new masters who had been left out, depending on the type of work. A professional consciousness that included pride in one's skills and a sense of responsibility became the character of a craftsman. Until the 18th century, handicraft production was the only form of industrial production, and it played a major role, so craftsmen had a high status. However, from around that time, new industrial production aimed at mass production, such as wholesale cottage industries and, from the 19th century, factory-based handicraft manufacturing, began to develop in villages, and the advantages of artisans' handicraft production were lost, and the role of farmers as handicraft producers became more important.

From the latter half of the 19th century into modern times, as mechanized factory industry capable of mass production developed further, many handicraft production sectors were dismantled and the field of handicraft production by artisans narrowed. Furthermore, as a result of the development of the wholesaler system and the contract system, not only farmers but also artisans became wage laborers, and handicraft production by artisans became limited to a limited sector that could not be mechanized. Craftsmen faced several crises. In modern times, stimulated by the active labor movement of factory workers, artisans, and factory girls, some industries also formed unions out of a sense of being workers, but these were not strong, and the modernization of production methods and the apprenticeship system in general did not progress.

In modern times, with the large-scale expansion of mechanized production and technological innovation, the productivity of handicraft production by artisans is not very high, and they face problems such as difficulty in obtaining materials and training successors. Although assistance is being extended to traditional crafts, measures for ordinary artisans are insufficient. Although the situation surrounding artisans is tough, some are forming horizontal organizations and taking steps to secure their autonomy as entrepreneurs.

[Motoo Endo]

Western

Western craftsmen are related to the establishment of medieval cities in the 11th century. Of course, handicrafts themselves have been around since a very early period, and blacksmithing, pottery making, and weaving have a long history. As cities developed, in the early 12th century, craftsmen in the cities organized trade associations, Zunft (German: Zunft), or g(u)ild. They trained as apprentices and journeymen, and then became masters. However, in the early Middle Ages, there were no regulations on the length of apprenticeship. The first record of forced training was in 1304 in the Zurich miller's, milliner's, and tanner's guilds, and it became common in the mid-15th century. The training period was often up to four years. A master could not take on an apprentice without the approval of the guild. Before that, those who wanted to become apprentices were asked about their origins. In the Middle Ages, there were respectable and unrespectable occupations, and some people were not eligible to become apprentices depending on their parents' occupations, such as executioner, gravedigger, shepherd, night watchman, skinner, carriage driver, day laborer, etc. If you pass a four-week exam, you train under a master for three years, take the guild exam, and become a craftsman. After that, the craftsman rests at the master's house for two weeks and goes on a journey.

The first to regulate the travel of craftsmen was the tannery guild in Hamburg (1375), which spread to the general public in the mid-15th century, and by the 16th century, travelling was mandatory everywhere. In old tales, there are many scenes in which craftsmen such as tailors and blacksmiths stay at inns, but in reality they were not able to stay wherever they wanted; they had designated lodgings depending on their type of occupation. There were even specific greetings that had to be said when staying overnight. The master would teach these phrases to the newcomers before they departed, making sure not to tell anyone. At the inn, veteran craftsmen would ask questions, and newcomers would buy them beer. On such occasions, the traveling craftsmen would carry identification with them. A leatherworker's notebook from the 19th century (1820) in Austria has columns for name, occupation, fabric, age, build, appearance, forehead, eyes, nose, mouth, chin, beard, hair, complexion, health, and other characteristics. The notebook from 1827 has columns for status and religion, and the notebook from 1854 even has columns for eyebrows and teeth. The employer writes about the leatherworker's honesty, character, diligence, and skill, and writes the employer's name, qualifications, address, the date the leatherworker started work, the type of work, and the date he left work. The leatherworker in the notebook from 1820 travels from Germany to Czechoslovakia to Germany to Tyrol in Austria. He stays at one master's house for two or three months to six months, and returns home after three years. Such travel routes were determined by the place and the type of work. However, some guilds did not send their leatherworkers on trips in order to keep their techniques secret. In the case of a tailor in Beithofen, Austria in the 15th century, work hours were from 5 am to 10 pm in winter and from 4 am in summer. There were strict restrictions on social interactions, and the master's exam was to make nine pieces of clothing in eight different styles.

A craftsman could become a master craftsman with the approval of the guild. However, since a master craftsman had to have his own home, workshop, citizenship, and be married, it was difficult for him to become independent in reality. Even if he became independent, young master craftsmen suffered from debt for many years. Therefore, those who were not the son of a master relied on their wives' dowries or married the master's daughter or widow to become a master craftsman. In addition, master craftsmen's shares were limited and bought and sold for money. Thus, the number of craftsmen who could not become master craftsmen increased year by year, and craftsmen formed their own unions and came into conflict with the guild. The guilds, which had widowed more political power than economic organizations in the 14th century, became rigid in the 16th century, and the familial relationship between master craftsmen, their wives, craftsmen, and apprentices also began to crumble. In the 16th century, women could learn the trade, but by the end of the 17th century, women were excluded from the profession, except for the widows of master craftsmen, due to the overstaffing. From the outside, artisan society was dealt a serious blow by the rise of Manufacture in the 18th century, and a further blow by the emergence of large-scale industrial production in the 19th century.

[Michio Iide]

"A History of Japanese Craftsmen" by Endo Motoo (1967, Yuzankaku Publishing)" ▽ "A Study of Medieval Western Cities and Guilds" by Ito Sakae (1968, Kobundo Shinsha)" ▽ "German Craftsmen" by Takagi Kenjiro (Chuko Shinsho)" ▽ "Craftsmen Traveling in France" by L. Benoist, translated by Kato Setsuko (Hakusuisha, Quessais-je Bunko)" ▽ "From the Window of the Middle Ages" by Abe Kinya (1981, Asahi Shimbun)" ▽ "People Traveling in the Middle Ages" by Abe Kinya (1978, Heibonsha)

[Reference] | Guild

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

専門的な手工的技術と道具をもって顧客のために手工的生産をする手工業者。日本にこうした職人が誕生するまでには長い前史があった。原始社会では手工的技術と道具は、狩猟・漁労、さらに農耕と結び付いていて、共同体の成人層が共同体成員全体のために自給的な自由な生産をしていた。3世紀からの古代になって、技術保持者のある者は、貴族のために農閑期に手工的生産を強制される工人となった。技術はもつが道具はもたないという不自由な手工的生産者であった。

　平安時代末期の12世紀には、職人誕生の契機である賃仕事が成立した。一般に需要の高い分野に農民からの職業的分化がみられ、いくつかの職種ができた。技術・道具はもっているが原料は注文主から支給され、それに加工生産して手間賃を得るのである。中世の14世紀からは、代金仕事という、原料もある程度は確保して手工生産し、代金を得ることが始まった。職人の業態には大工・左官などの出職(でしょく)と指物師・縫物屋などの居職(いじょく)があったが、賃仕事は出職、代金仕事は居職に多かった。賃金は初めは出来高払いであったが、やがて時間払いとなっていった。労働時間は1日14時間であった。職人は、都市・村落とも、領主に従属して、その経営と生活が保証された。座(ざ)という組織もその一つである。技術伝承のための徒弟制的関係も、技術に対する意識も確立されてきた。職人は絶えず農民から分化していた。17世紀からは、職人は領主の拠点の城下町そのほかの都市に、仲間(なかま)という組織の保護と統制によって経営と生活を維持することになった。しかし、仲間は業種別の親方だけの利益独占を計るための横の組織で、徒弟制も職人の縦の組織として家業構(かまい)といった親方の恣意(しい)が許され、年季も無制限となっていた。平職人の横の組織への要望は強くなってきて、18世紀からは、仲間外れの新しい親方も含めた職人全体の結合も、職種によっては生まれていた。技術に対する自負と責任感という職業意識が職人気質(かたぎ)となってきた。18世紀までは、手工業生産が唯一の工業生産として、その役割は大きかったから、職人の立場も高いものであった。しかし、そのころから問屋制家内工業、19世紀からは工場制手工業といった、新しい量産を目標とする工業生産が村落にも発展してきて、職人の手工的生産の優位性は失われ、農民の手工的生産者としての役割が重くなってきた。

　19世紀後半から近代になって、さらに量産可能な機械制工場工業が発展してくるにつれて、多くの手工業生産部門は解体し、職人の手工的生産の分野は狭くなってきた。それに問屋制や請負制の展開の結果、農民はもちろん、職人もまた賃金労働者化してきて、職人による手工生産は、機械化できない限られた部門のこととなってしまった。職人は何度かの危機に直面することになった。近代では、工場労働者・職工・女工の労働運動が活発となったのに刺激されて、職人もまた労働者としての意識から組合組織をつくった業種もあったが、強いものではなく、それに一般には生産形態や徒弟制の近代化は進まなかった。

　現代は機械生産の大規模化と技術革新が進み、職人の手工業生産は生産性があまり高くないということから、材料の入手難、後継者の養成難といった問題を抱えている。伝統工芸には援助の手も伸びているが、一般の職人については対策が不十分である。職人を取り巻く情況は厳しいが、そのなかに横の組織をつくり、企業者としての主体性の確保に進む者もいる。

［遠藤元男］

西洋

西洋の職人は11世紀の中世都市の成立とかかわりをもっている。むろん手仕事そのものは非常に早い時期からあり、鍛冶(かじ)、陶器作り、機(はた)織りなどの歴史は古い。都市の発展につれて、12世紀の初め、都市にいた手工業者たちは同業組合、ツンフトZunft（ドイツ語）、ギルドg(u)ildを組織した。彼らは徒弟、職人と修業を積んでいって親方になる。しかし中世初期の段階では、徒弟の修業期間の規定がなかった。修業強制の最初の記録は1304年、スイスのチューリヒの粉屋、帽子屋、皮なめし屋のツンフトにみられ、15世紀なかばになって一般化した。修業期間は4年までが多かった。親方はツンフトの承認がなければ徒弟を採用することもできない。その前に徒弟になりたい者は出自を問われた。中世にはまともな職業とまともでない職業という別があり、死刑執行人、墓掘り人、羊飼い、夜回り、皮はぎ屋、馬車ひき、日雇いその他、親の職業によって徒弟になる資格がない場合があった。4週間の試験に合格すると、親方のもとで3年修業し、ツンフトの試験を受け、職人の身分になれる。そのあと職人は2週間親方の家で休み、旅に出る。

　職人の旅を初めて規定したのは、ハンブルクの皮なめしのツンフトで（1375）、15世紀のなかばに一般に広がり、16世紀になるとどこでも遍歴が義務づけられた。昔話によく仕立屋や鍛冶屋などの職人が宿に泊まる場面が出てくるが、実際は気ままに泊まれるのでなく、職種によって定宿があった。そのうえ、泊まるときの特定の挨拶(あいさつ)まであった。その文句は親方が、出発する際に、他言しないように念押しをして教えた。宿では古参の職人が質問し、新参者がビールをおごった。こういうとき、旅の職人は身分証明書を携行していた。後の19世紀（1820）のものだが、オーストリアの皮はぎ職人の手帳には、氏名、職業、生地、年齢、体格、容貌(ようぼう)、額、目、鼻、口、あご、ひげ、髪、顔色、健康、その他の特徴という欄があり、1827年の手帳では身分、宗教、1854年のものでは眉(まゆ)、歯の欄まである。雇い主は、職人の誠実さ、身持ち、勤勉さ、技量について書き、雇い主の氏名、資格、住所、職人が仕事についた日、仕事の種類、仕事を離れた日を書き込む。1820年の手帳の職人はドイツ→チェコスロバキア→ドイツ→オーストリアのチロルと旅している。彼は1人の親方の家に2、3か月から半年いて、3年後に帰郷している。こういう遍歴コースは土地と職種によってそれぞれ決まっていた。ただし技術の秘密保持のため、職人を旅に出さないツンフトもあった。生活ぶりは、15世紀のオーストリアのバイトホーフェンの仕立屋の場合、仕事は冬期が朝5時から夜10時まで、夏期は朝4時からとなっている。人との交際にも厳しい制約があり、親方試験は8種類9着の服をつくることで試された。

　職人はツンフトの承認を得て親方の資格を得る。しかし、親方は自分の家と仕事場と市民権をもち、結婚していなければならなかったので、現実にはなかなか独立しにくかった。独立しても、若い親方は長年借金に苦しんだ。それで親方の息子でない者は妻の持参金をあてにしたり、親方の娘や親方の未亡人と結婚して親方になった。また、親方株が限られ、株が金で売買された。こうして親方になれない職人が年ごとに増え、職人は自分たちの組合をつくってツンフトと対立するようになった。14世紀に経済団体以上の強い政治力を発揮したツンフトも、16世紀には硬直し、親方夫妻と職人、徒弟との家族主義的関係も崩れてきた。この16世紀は、しかし女性でも仕事を覚えることができたが、17世紀末になると親方未亡人を除いて、女性は人員過剰を理由に締め出された。職人社会は外からは、18世紀にマニュファクチュアができて深刻な打撃を受け、19世紀の大規模な工業生産の出現によって追い打ちをかけられる。

［飯豊道男］

『遠藤元男著『日本職人史』（1967・雄山閣出版）』▽『伊藤栄著『西洋中世都市とギルドの研究』（1968・弘文堂新社）』▽『高木健次郎著『ドイツの職人』（中公新書）』▽『L・ブノワ著、加藤節子訳『フランス巡歴の職人たち』（白水社・文庫クセジュ）』▽『阿部謹也著『中世の窓から』（1981・朝日新聞社）』▽『阿部謹也著『中世を旅する人びと』（1978・平凡社）』

[参照項目] | ギルド

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