Confucianism

Japanese: 儒教 - じゅきょう

A representative ideology of China. It began with Confucius (Kongqiu) at the end of the Spring and Autumn period, and was one of the Hundred Schools of Thought during the Warring States period. In 136 BC (5th year of the Jianyuan era) under Emperor Wu of Han, it became the state religion, and from then until the collapse of the Qing dynasty, it was supported by successive imperial courts and, together with political power, dominated Chinese society and culture as a whole. It also spread to Japan, the Korean Peninsula, and Southeast Asian regions, known as the Chinese character cultural sphere, and has had a major influence there.

Similar words include Confucianism and Confucianism, but in China the word Confucianism is not used much, and it is more common to use the words Confucianism, which means the school of thought, and Confucianism, which means the study of Confucianism. The word Confucianism seems to have arisen in response to imported Buddhism around 300, and was used until later times mainly to refer to the three religions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. In comparison with Confucianism and Confucianism, Confucianism is a word that emphasizes the aspect of education, and it can be said to have had a somewhat religious meaning. I think that Confucianism was originally considered the study of the scholar-officials (ruling class and intellectuals), and in that sense it was appropriate to call it Confucianism and Confucianism. This was the same in Japan.

However, in Japan after the Meiji period, the term Confucianism came to be used in a broad sense to include all schools of thought, learning, and teaching. Perhaps it was most convenient to call it Confucianism when comparing it with Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, etc. from a world historical perspective. Although Confucianism is not a religion, the role it has played in China is comparable to Christianity in the West.

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Features

Confucianism can be simply described as the study of "cultivating oneself and governing others" (a phrase used by Zhu Xi meaning to govern others by cultivating oneself). "Cultivating oneself" means cultivating one's own morality, and in that sense Confucianism is the study of ethics. However, this self-cultivation is not for one's own sake, but also has the purpose of governing others. Specifically, it is the study of politics for governing the people as scholar-officials. However, politics in Confucianism does not mean disciplining the people with laws and punishments, but rather guiding them in the right direction through morality, and as such it is considered essential to first cultivate oneself.

A man of great wisdom and virtue was called a "Gentleman," but the term also meant a ruler. Its opposite was a "Petite Man," but petty men, who are governed, do not have the ability to cultivate themselves, and are only able to become moral after being educated by a ruler (a Gentleman). Furthermore, a man of the highest wisdom and virtue was called a "Saint," but a saint was also considered to be someone who should rule the world as an emperor, and this gave rise to the unique concept of a "Saint King," in which a saint is also a king. The ideal was that the emperor (i.e. the Holy King), who was the greatest saint, would be at the top, and the scholar-officials would support him with the knowledge and education they had accumulated, and thus perfect moral government (virtuous government) would be expected, and here we see the integration of ethics and politics.

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Major ethical theories

The root of benevolence is "jin (benevolence)." Jin refers to the state of mind when dealing with people, and includes a wide range of meanings, but if pressed, it is close to love, and in its practice, particular emphasis was placed on "loyalty and compassion" (sincerity and compassion). However, this benevolence should be extended gradually from close relatives such as parents and siblings to others, and the first step in benevolence is to show filial piety, followed by respect for brothers and sisters. In this sense, Confucian benevolence must be distinguished from so-called love of humanity. On the other hand, when benevolence is expanded to include the common people, it becomes "benevolent government," and if that benevolence covers the entire world, that person is worthy of being called a sage king. Although benevolence appears to refer to personal feelings, it was also the principle of governance.

Since benevolence is originally related to human feelings, there was a danger that one could be swayed by emotion and express it in a wrong way. "Righteousness" is what restrains this and makes it appropriate. The use of the terms "benevolence and righteousness" in the same breath began with Mencius (Meng Ke), and since then they have come to represent the virtues of Confucianism. The four virtues are made up of benevolence and righteousness, and propriety and wisdom, and faith is added to them to make them the "four virtues." "Property" is originally a form of etiquette and a normative custom for maintaining social order and smoothing interpersonal relationships. Therefore, while learning the form of etiquette is an important subject for Confucians, it was also necessary to cultivate a humble heart that would naturally carry out etiquette. This is the main meaning of "ritual" as one of the four virtues and five constants. "Wisdom" is generally a concept contrasted with "virtue," but in Confucianism it is not considered to be mere knowledge, but rather the ability to judge the right and wrong of things, and in that sense it is counted as a virtue. When "faith" is used in conjunction with "loyalty and sincerity," it refers to the verbal expression of "loyalty," which means sincerity, but the faith mentioned in the Five Constant Virtues refers to a state of mind and attitude that is free from falsehood and deceit, combining the two. On the other hand, faith is not only to people, but also to the gods of heaven and earth, and "sincerity," which is synonymous with faith, is from this perspective considered the way of heaven, and is also a metaphysical principle as the sanity that permeates heaven and earth.

Confucianism also refers to the "Five Relationships." The five relationships are five basic types of interpersonal relationships: parent-child relationships, loyalty between rulers and subjects, order between elders and younger people, the distinction between husband and wife, and trust between friends.

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Historical transition

The history of Confucianism can be broadly divided into the period before (primitive Confucianism) and after it was made the state religion during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, but it is customary to consider Confucianism after it became the state religion in three periods, taking into account the characteristics of each era: from the reign of Emperor Wu of Han to the end of the Tang Dynasty (Han-Tang Exegesis), from the beginning of the Song Dynasty to the end of the Ming Dynasty (Song-Ming Confucianism), and the Qing Dynasty (Qing Dynasty Evidence Research).

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Primitive Confucianism

Confucius was born in the small state of Lu during the turbulent times at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. Externally, he restored order that had been lost through ritual, and internally, he taught that people should treat others with benevolence. He also freed people from the ancient, superstitious oppression of heaven, and promoted a kind of rational, human-centered thinking. People who resonated with his ideas gathered around his school, and thus the Confucian sect was born. After Confucius' death, his disciples dispersed to various places and expanded their influence, which inspired the establishment of a hundred schools of thought, including the Mohist and Taoist schools. As the most powerful school, Confucianism gradually developed while competing with the hundred schools or being influenced by them.

Mencius and Xunzi were prominent figures during this period. Mencius internally deepened Confucius's ethical theory by advocating the idea of innate human goodness, and by advocating government with the Kingly Way, he presented a concrete plan for the virtuous governance that Confucius spoke of. Next, Xunzi placed emphasis on the constraints of etiquette (social norms), arguing that people cannot be born good, and also worked to develop an objective teaching methodology. All five classics, including the Book of Documents and the Book of Songs, were published around the time of Xunzi, but it was Xunzi who first made the study of the classics essential and a pillar of teaching.

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Han and Tang lessons (traditional Confucianism)

Confucianism was established as the state religion in 136 BC (5th year of the Jianyuan era) when the Five Classics Doctors were appointed, but at that time Confucianism was already centered on the study of the Five Classics. Confucianism has always praised the ways of the former kings, and looked up to Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu as holy kings, but as Confucianism developed, it believed that the origin of Confucius' teachings lay in these holy kings, and that the Five Classics directly recorded the ways of the former kings, so it came to respect the Five Classics more than the Analects, a record of Confucius' words and deeds. However, faced with the inherent difficulty of the Five Classics, Confucianism from this point on developed into the study of exegesis (commentary study) of the Five Classics, that is, the study of the Classics.

In the early days of the Western Han dynasty, when Confucianism was made the state religion, the "Modern Classical Classical Studies" flourished. It was a highly political classic that was based on the theory of the correlation between heaven and man, added mystical interpretations to the scriptures, and justified the emergence of the Han dynasty. In the Later Han dynasty, in parallel with this, the "Ancient Classical Classical Studies" arose, which paid attention to the meaning of the characters, and the foundation of the study of the classics as an exegesis was established. The 400 years between the two Han dynasties was the period when the study of the classics flourished most, backed by the authority of the dynasty. However, in the Wei-Jin-Northern and Southern Dynasties period, Laozi-Zhuang-Zhuang thought and imported Buddhism became popular, and Confucianism declined, and Laozi-Zhuang-Zhuang-style commentaries were introduced into the study of the classics. In the Tang dynasty, the "Five Classics Zhengyi" was compiled to unify the study of the classics, which had been divided between the Northern and Southern Dynasties, but this was also to unify the teachings of the classics nationally in preparation for the Imperial Examinations. Thus, Confucianism became fixed as a study of the classics, lost its vitality, and degenerated into a study for the sake of profit. At that time, the mainstream of thought in the world was the philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism.

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Song and Ming Physical Science (Neo-Confucianism)

In the Song Dynasty, a revolutionary movement arose from reflection on the current state of Confucianism. This was Song learning (Neo-Confucianism), which began in the Northern Song and was perfected by Zhu Xi (Zhu Xi) in the Southern Song. It respected the Four Books (The Analects, Mencius, Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean) instead of the Five Classics, and restored its original nature as an ethical theory, while placing it within a cosmological system. The root of all things in heaven and earth is reason. Reason is pure and good, and humans have this reason as their true nature (nai soku ri), but at the same time, they mix with material ki to form the body. People must suppress their own desires (human desires) that are brought about by ki and return to their true nature (heavenly reason). To do this, it is necessary to practice both kyokei (keeping the mind pure and single-minded) and kyuuri (understanding the reason of things; specifically, reading and studying). Neo-Confucianism was initially viewed as heresy, but it flourished with the support of the scholar-officials, and during the Yuan dynasty it replaced traditional Confucianism as the state religion, a status that continued until the end of the Qing dynasty.

In the Ming Dynasty, Wang Yangming's (Wang Shouren) school of thought emerged, and was more popular than Zhu Xi's school, which had become an official school and lost its vitality. It is a thoroughly idealistic theory that preaches that the mind is the truth, that truth is not something outside, but that one's own mind is the truth. However, at the end of its line, it went to the extreme of abandoning reading and even giving rise to a trend of denying the authority of the classics.

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Qing Dynasty Historical Studies

In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, criticism of the late Yangming school led to the dismissal of the Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism as empty and calls for a return to exegesis. Song learning still maintained its position as an official school, but the mainstream of academic studies shifted to Sinology. Based on the ancient Classical Classics of the Later Han period, it made full use of various studies such as philology, phonology, history, and geography, and aimed to seek truth through facts, which is called "evidence-based learning." However, Qing learning's interest eventually shifted to the Modern Classics of the Western Han period. However, since Modern Classics was originally strongly political, it provided a theoretical basis for various reform movements during the turbulent period at the end of the Qing dynasty. This was the Gongyang School of the Qing dynasty.

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Modern China and Confucianism

With the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the emergence of the Republic of China (1912), Confucian political science, with the sage king (Son of Heaven) at the apex, lost its raison d'être, and its ethical theory was forced to face criticism in the face of the trend of the times, which advocated freedom and equality. However, there were still tendencies among those in power to preserve Confucianism, and Confucian morality, centered on filial piety, remained deeply rooted among the people. When the Republic of China eventually became the People's Republic of China (1949), the trend of criticism of Confucianism became even stronger. This was particularly sharp during the Criticism of Lin and Criticism of Confucius movement in 1974. However, the fact that Confucius' name is still used in such political movements shows that his influence is still strong today. Now that the Criticism of Confucius movement has passed, the Confucius Temple in Qufu, Shandong Province has been restored, and there is even a trend of reevaluating Confucianism in some quarters. However, it is an interesting question whether this will remain an evaluation of the cultural heritage of the past, or whether there will be some attempt to find some contemporary significance within it.

[Haruki Kusuyama]

Confucianism in Japan

The history of Confucianism in Japan can be divided into two periods, around the time of the Mongol Invasions (late 13th century), into an early period when Japan adopted ancient Chinese (Han and Tang) Confucianism, and a later period when Japan adopted early modern Chinese (Song, Ming, and Qing) Confucianism.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

Clan-States and Confucianism

As early as the end of the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th century, ancient Confucianism was introduced from China, complementing the ancient Shinto ethics and becoming the ideology of the clan-state based on the clan community. From the time of Emperor Keitai to Emperor Kinmei (around the 6th century), the Imperial Court frequently requested Baekje to send scholars of the Five Classics on a rotating basis, which indicates the strong interest of the ancient state in Confucianism.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

The Ritsuryo State and Confucianism

The period from the reign of Prince Shotoku through the Taika Reforms, Tenmu's Reforms, and the Restoration of Jito and Monmu (7th and 8th centuries) was a time when the construction of a clan-based Ritsuryo state, which added a Ritsuryo-style bureaucratic structure to the foundations of clan society, was progressing. During this time, the twelve ranks of ranks of caps established by Prince Shotoku were named after Confucian virtues: virtue, benevolence, courtesy, faith, righteousness, and wisdom, and the Seventeen-Article Constitution also strongly advocated Confucian morality for one ruler and all people. Prince Nakano Oe and Nakatomi Kamatari learned the "Way of Zhou Kong" (the ideals of kingly politics) from Minamibuchi no Shoan, who studied in China, and accomplished the work of reform, paving the way for the realization of a Ritsuryo state. After the Tenmu Reforms, the Ritsuryo Code was put into effect, and the Confucian doctrine of governing and teaching the people with virtue became the political ideal, and the Myogyo Doin, established at the university, lectured on Confucian texts based on commentaries from the Han and Tang dynasties. However, commentaries that endorsed banishment and extermination and "Mencius" were excluded. Around this time, a view of the Emperor was established that combined the Confucian view of the Son of Heaven as a virtuous ruler and the Buddhist view of the King as a ruler of ten virtues, on the foundation of the Shinto view of the Great King as the divine grandson of the Emperor. In other words, Confucianism combined with the two religions of Shinto and Buddhism to become the ideology of the new Ritsuryo state.

From the Nara to the Heian periods, this ideological alliance was continued with varying emphasis being placed on Buddhism and Confucianism, but with the advent of the Sekkan and Insei periods, the influence of Confucianism in both politics and personal life weakened, and universities also went into decline.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

The Samurai Shogunate and Zen Scholars

In the Kamakura period, the Pure Land Buddhism and Tendai Hongaku ideology, which downplayed precepts (including ethics and morality), developed within Buddhism, and did not meet the moral demands of the samurai who shared in the political power. The Hojo clan sought a way to govern and protect the people in peace in the Neo-Confucianism (Neo-Confucianism, which counts "Mencius" as one of the Four Books) brought by the Rinzai Zen monks Rankei Doryu, Gottan Funei, Daikyu Sokyu, Mugaku Sogen, and Issan Ichinei, who came from China. The Baishōron states that the Hojo clan already held the anti-harvest ideology of Mencius during the Jōkyū War (1221), but it is noteworthy that it likens Ashikaga Takauji to King Wen of the Zhou dynasty and praises the Ashikaga government as being in accordance with the will of heaven.

Rinzai Zen was accompanied by Neo-Confucianism from the time it was introduced from China, but in the Muromachi period, Muso Soseki considered Confucianism to be a means to Zen, Gido Shushin preached that Zen enlightenment includes the virtue of Confucianism's doctrine of moderation, and Kiyo Hoshu went further, preaching that Zen and Confucianism are one and the same, with Zen enlightenment being the doctrine and Confucianism being the doctrine of moderation, forming a philosophy similar to Yangmingism before Wang Yangming. Next, Minamimura Baiken reversed the relationship between Zen and Confucianism, preaching that Zen training should be used as a means to reach the "rank of a true Confucian" (a state of attaining the doctrine of moderation) and bring stability to the people's lives and order to society, becoming an ideologue for the governance of the territories of the emerging warring states daimyo.

On the other hand, even in the field of conservative court Confucianism, Ichijō Kaneyoshi added new annotations (Zhu Xi annotations) to the traditional old annotations from the Han and Tang dynasties, and court Confucian scholars such as Kiyohara Nobukata responded by strengthening the Zhu Xi influence in their family teachings.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

The Tokugawa Shogunate and Neo-Confucianism and Yangmingism

It was Fujiwara Seika, a Zen monk who returned to secular life, who extracted Zhu Xi's philosophy, which had been incorporated into the framework of Zen, from Zen itself, and it was Hayashi Razan who removed it from the framework of Zen and developed it in a pure and free manner.

The Sengoku daimyo, who believed in the ideal of combining power and wealth , inherited the traditional political ideal of a samurai government with peace for the people, and sought to stabilize the lives of their subjects with wealth and to bring order to their territories with power . They sympathized with Confucianism based on Yangmingism and welcomed the theories of Minamimura Baiken and Fujiwara Seika, but when the feudal order stabilized and became established in the Edo period (from the beginning of the 17th century), it was too late for Yangmingism to be introduced from China, and it played an anti-establishment role in criticizing the existing system, and was oppressed by the shogunate and various domains. Nakae Toju left his government position and retired to his hometown of Omi, Kumazawa Banzan was disliked by the shogunate and was driven out of Okayama and lived in seclusion in the Kanto region, Oshio Heihachiro rebelled against the shogunate and was defeated and killed in Osaka, and Saigo Takamori and others started a movement to overthrow the shogunate at the end of the Edo period. While Yangmingism continued intermittently, Neo-Confucianism became a major school that permeated the Edo period. Hayashi Razan served the shogunate and became the founder of the Hayashi family, and around the Genroku (1688-1704) and Kyoho (1716-36) eras, Kinoshita Junan and Muro Kyuso, and around the Kansei (1789-1801) eras, Shibano Ritsuzan and others came out to serve the shogunate and help the Hayashi family. The shogunate also recognized the Hayashi family's Neo-Confucianism as the "orthodox school," forbidding shogunate officials from other schools and asking the various feudal domains to follow its example.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

The Righteous and Humane Schools of Confucianism

Neo-Confucianism teaches that Heaven created everything in the universe (this Heavenly virtue is called Gen, which resides in people and becomes benevolence), and that Heaven rules over all things (this Heavenly virtue is called Li, which resides in people and becomes righteousness), and that people should praise Heaven's work of creation and governance. However, Heaven is not "suspended in the sky" (a transcendental, personal deity), but exists only within people and nature, and therefore people have no other way to serve Heaven than to serve their immediate rulers and fathers. Japanese Neo-Confucianists emphasized Heaven's creation and governance and human participation more than Chinese Neo-Confucianists did, and made Neo-Confucianism a "religion of the present world," a theology (ideology) that maintained the prosperity and order of feudal lord territories. On the other hand, the people governed by feudal lord territories, whether warriors, merchants, artisans, or farmers, experienced in their daily lives a political system in which prosperity and order in the domain would continue if they relied on the lord's kindness and submitted to his authority . Naturally, therefore, the virtues of righteousness and compassion permeated the lives of all ranks within the domain, and these were also consciously considered.

It was Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who was well versed in Confucianism and the state of the world, who made these virtues of honor and human feelings the basis of his dramaturgy. Chikamatsu believed that samurai were loyal and maintained feudal order, while townspeople were easily swayed by emotion and prone to lose their honor, and he created historical plays on the theme of the honorableness of samurai, and domestic plays on the theme of the emotional fragility of townspeople. Chikamatsu's historical plays and domestic plays were artistic expressions of the two trends in Confucian thought: the ethics of life in the Edo period and its logosification.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

Neo-Confucianism and the Old School

Japanese Neo-Confucianism teaches that heaven has two functions of creation and governance (the virtues of origin and profit), and that humans have two virtues of benevolence and righteousness (the hearts of love and respect). Of these, Yamazaki Ansai, who called himself Keigi, emphasized heaven's governance and humans' participation (reason, profit - righteousness and respect) and preached the teachings of rule and obedience. Kaibara Ekiken taught townspeople and farmers about heaven's creation and the lord's benevolence (ki, origin - benevolence and love) from the side of the ruling class. On the other hand, Kyoto townspeople scholar Ito Jinsai rejected the function of reason and the virtue of respect and righteousness preached by Neo-Confucianism, and instead valued the function of ki and the virtue of benevolence, seeking to realize a community of love beyond feudal status and order from the standpoint of a townsman in Kyoto during the Genroku period. From the standpoint of feudal samurai ruling class in the Kyoho period, Ogyu Sorai rejected the immanent heaven preached by Neo-Confucianism and elevated the transcendental, personal, divine heaven, and preached that the Edo Shogunate should strictly establish its systems just as the previous kings had established rites and music to embody the will of heaven. The Old School, represented by Jinsai and Sorai, which advocated the revival of ancient Chinese Confucianism, can be said to have been joined to the backbone of Neo-Confucianism in a negative way and formed the backbone of feudal teachings.

Now, Ishida Baigan's Shingaku was a teaching that was adapted from the perspective of Confucianism among townspeople of the Kyoho period - that is, from the perspective of the townspeople's social awareness as members of the feudal community (adding in Shinto and Buddhist ideas) and turned into a teaching for the townspeople.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

Neo-Confucianism and Confucianism in the Edo Period

Neo-Confucianism was, so to speak, the backbone of Confucianism in the Edo period. Various schools of Confucianism combined with this, both positively and negatively, to form the ideological framework of the feudal system, and this was fleshed out by the acceptance of Western natural science through Neo-Confucianism's Kakubutsuchi (the study of the world and attaining knowledge), the pro-imperial movement (such as Mitogaku) based on Neo-Confucianism's theory of justification, and the study of the Eclectic School and the School of Evidence Research influenced by Confucian studies in the Qing Dynasty of China, and thus formed Confucianism in the Edo period.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

The Loss of Religious Character of Neo-Confucianism in the Meiji Era

In the Meiji era, Confucianism was suppressed by Western-style enlightenment thought as an old feudal ideology during the period of civilization and enlightenment, but began to revive in the 1870s. However, Neo-Confucianism, a "religion of this world," was absorbed into the Emperor System, and became a "morality" that supported the large family state, with the Emperor as its head. Today, Japanese Confucian scholars have forgotten that Neo-Confucianism was a religion (albeit a secular religion of this world) and have decided that it was originally a teaching of morality. This is probably the result of the modernization of Neo-Confucianism by Motoda Nagazane, Nishimura Shigeki, Inoue Tetsujiro, and the Department of Oriental Philosophy of the former Imperial University, i.e., turning it into philosophy and ethics.

[Ishida Kazuyoshi]

"Lectures on Eastern Thought, Vol. 2, Chinese Thought I, Confucian Thought," edited by Uno Seiichi et al. (1967, University of Tokyo Press)" ▽ "Chinese Philosophy," edited by Abe Yoshio (1964, Meitoku Publishing)" ▽ "Neo-Confucianism and Yangmingism," written by Shimada Kenji (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "Practical Morality of Confucianism" (included in Volume 18 of the Complete Works of Tsuda Sokichi, 1967, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Daigakuryo and Ancient Confucianism," written by Kuki Yukio (1968, Simul Publishing)" ▽ "Confucianism in the Kamakura and Muromachi Periods," written by Ashikaga Enshu (1932, Japanese Classics Collection Publishing Association)" ▽ "Confucianism in Early Modern Japan," edited by Fukushima Koshizo (1939, Iwanami Shoten), in Commemoration of the 70th Anniversary of the Death of Tokugawa Kintsugu

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国の代表的思想。春秋時代末期の孔子(こうし)（孔丘）に始まり、戦国時代には諸子百家(しょしひゃっか)の一つであったが、漢(かん)の武帝(ぶてい)の紀元前136年（建元5）に国教となり、それ以後清(しん)朝の崩壊に至るまで歴代朝廷の支持を得、政治権力と一体となって中国の社会・文化の全般を支配してきた。また漢字文化圏とよばれる日本、朝鮮半島、東南アジア諸地域にも伝わり、大きな影響を与えている。

　同類の語として儒学・儒家があるが、中国では儒教の語はあまり用いられず、学派を意味する儒家、その学問をいう儒学の語によってこれを示すことが一般的である。儒教の語は、外来の仏教に対して300年ごろに生じたものであるらしく、後世に至るまで主として儒仏道三教を並称するような場合に使用されていた。儒家・儒学に対していえば、儒教は教化の面を重視する語であり、いくぶんか宗教的な意味を含む語であったといえよう。思うに儒教は本来が士大夫(したいふ)（治者階級・知識人）の学とされており、その意味で儒家・儒学と称することがふさわしかったのである。そしてこの点は日本でも同様であった。

　ところが明治以後の日本では、学派、学問、教化のすべてを含んで広義に儒教と称するようになった。おそらくは世界史的視野にたってキリスト教、仏教、イスラム教などと並称する場合、やはり儒教とよぶことがもっとも便宜であったのであろう。儒教は宗教ではないが、その中国に果たしてきた役割からすると、欧米のキリスト教に匹敵するからである。

［楠山春樹］

特色

儒教はひと口にいって「修己治人(しゅうこちじん)」（己(おのれ)を修めて人を治める、という意味の朱子のことば）の学である。修己とは自身において道徳的修養を積むこと、その意味で儒教は倫理の学である。しかしその修己は、自身のためであると同時に治人を目的とする。具体的には士大夫として人民を治めるための政治の学である。ところが儒教でいう政治とは、法律や刑罰で民を規律することではなく、道徳によって民を善導することにあり、そこでまず己を修めることが必須(ひっす)とされたのである。

　知徳の優れた人を「君子(くんし)」と称するが、君子はまた治者をも意味した。その反対は「小人(しょうじん)」であるが、被治者である小人には自身で修養する能力はなく、治者（君子）の教化をまって初めて道徳的たりうるとされる。さらに最高の知徳を備えた人を「聖人」と称するが、聖人とは同時に帝王として天下に君臨すべきものとされ、ここに聖人即王者という、世界に類をみない「聖王」の概念が成立する。最高の聖人である帝王（すなわち聖王）を頂点とし、士大夫はそれぞれに積み重ねた知識教養によってこれを輔翼(ほよく)する、かくて道徳政治（徳治）の全きことが期待される、というのがその理想であって、ここに倫理と政治との一体化がみいだされる。

［楠山春樹］

主要な倫理説

根本は「仁(じん)」である。仁とは人に接する場合の心のあり方をいい、広範な内容を含んでいるが、しいていえば愛に近く、その実践にはとくに「忠恕(ちゅうじょ)」（真心と思いやり）が重視された。しかしその仁は、まず父母兄弟の近親から漸次他に及ぼすべきものとされ、「孝」を尽くすことは仁の第一歩、兄弟に対する「悌(てい)」がこれに次ぐとされる。儒教の仁はその意味でいわゆる人類愛とは区別されなければならない。一方、仁が拡大されて広く衆庶に及ぶとき、それは「仁政」となり、さらにその仁が天下を覆うということになれば、その人は聖王と称するにふさわしい。個人的な心情をいうかにみえる仁は、同時に治政の原理ともなるものであった。

　仁は本来人の心情にかかわるものであることから、ともすれば情に流されて発露を誤るおそれがあった。それを抑えて適宜ならしめるのが「義」である。「仁義」を並称することは孟子(もうし)（孟軻(もうか)）に始まり、その後、儒教の徳目を代表するものとなっている。仁・義に礼・智を加えて「四徳」と称し、それに信を加えて「五常」という。「礼」とは本来は礼儀作法の形式であって、社会的な秩序を維持し、また対人関係を円滑にするための規範慣習である。したがって、礼の形式を学ぶことは、儒家にとってたいせつな教科であるが、一方内面的には礼を当然のこととして実行する謙虚な心情を養うことが必要とされた。四徳五常としての礼は主としてその意味である。「知」は一般的には「徳」と対照される概念であるが、儒教ではこれを単なる知識とせず、事の是非善悪を判断する能力であると考え、その意味で徳目に数える。「信」は、忠信と連称する場合、真心を意味する「忠」がことばとして表れたものをいうが、五常にいう信は、両者をあわせてうそ偽りのない心のあり方、態度をいう。一方、信は人に対してばかりでなく、天地神明に誓うという面をもつが、信と同義である「誠(まこと)」は、こうした観点から天の道とされ、また天地間にみなぎる正気として形而上(けいじじょう)的な原理ともなっている。

　儒教ではまた「五倫」をいう。五倫とは基本的な対人関係を5種に整理して述べるものであって、父子の親、君臣の義、長幼の序、夫婦の別、朋友(ほうゆう)の信がそれである。

［楠山春樹］

歴史的変遷

儒教の歴史は、漢の武帝時代における国教化の以前（原始儒教）と以後とに大別されるが、さらに国教化以後の儒教は各時代の特色に留意して、漢の武帝時代から唐末に至る時期（漢唐訓詁(くんこ)学）、宋(そう)初から明(みん)末に至る時期（宋明性理学）、清(しん)一代（清朝考証学）に三分して考えることが通例である。

［楠山春樹］

原始儒教

春秋末期の乱世に小国魯(ろ)に生を受けた孔子は、外には礼によって失われた秩序を回復し、内には人に接するに仁をもってすべきことを説いた。また古代的、迷信的な天の重圧から人を解放し、一種の合理的、人間中心的な思考を推進した。こうした彼の思想に共鳴する人士がその門に集まって、ここに儒教教団が発生する。孔子の死後門人は各地に分散して教勢を拡大していったが、それに刺激されて墨家(ぼくか)・道家(どうか)等の諸子百家が継起する。儒家は最有力学派として百家に対抗しつつ、あるいはその影響を被りながら、しだいに展開を遂げていった。

　この間に傑出したのは孟子と荀子(じゅんし)である。孟子は性善説によって孔子の倫理説を内面的に深め、また王道政治を唱えて孔子のいう徳治に具体案を示した。次に荀子は、人は生まれつきのままでは善になりえないとして礼（社会的規範）による拘束を重視し、また客観的な教学の整備に努めた。『書経』『詩経』をはじめとする経書は、荀子を前後するころに五経のすべてが出そろうが、経書の学習を必須として教学の柱とすることは荀子に始まる。

［楠山春樹］

漢唐訓詁学（伝統的儒教）

儒教の国教化は前136年（建元5）に五経博士の置かれたときをもって始めとするが、当時の儒教はすでに五経の学習を中心とするものとなっていた。いったい儒教はつねに先王の道を称し、堯舜禹湯(ぎょうしゅんうとう)文武を聖王として仰いでいたが、発達した儒教は、孔子の教えの淵源(えんげん)はまさにこれらの聖王にあるとし、五経こそは直接に先王の道を記すものであると考えたことから、孔子の言行録である『論語』よりも五経を尊重するようになったのである。しかしもともと難解である五経を前にして、これ以後の儒教は、五経の訓詁学（注釈学）、すなわち「経学」として展開することとなった。

　国教化した当初の前漢には「今文(きんぶん)経学」が栄えた。天人相関説にたち、経文に神秘的解釈を加え、漢王朝の出現を正当化する政治色濃厚な経学である。後漢(ごかん)に入ると、これと並行して文字のもつ意味に留意する「古文経学」がおこり、訓詁学としての経学の基礎が築かれた。両漢400年間は、王朝の権威を背景として経学がもっとも栄えた時期である。しかし魏晋(ぎしん)南北朝時代になると、老荘思想や外来の仏教が盛行して儒教は衰退し、経学にも老荘的注釈が入り込む。唐代に入ると、南北朝に二分されていた経学を統一するために『五経正義』が編纂(へんさん)されるが、またそれは科挙(かきょ)の試験に備えて経義を国家的に統一するためでもあった。かくて儒教は、経学としても固定されて活力を失い、利禄(りろく)のための学に堕していった。当時において思想界の主流をなしたのは大乗(だいじょう)仏教の哲学だったのである。

［楠山春樹］

宋明性理学（新儒教）

宋代に入ると儒教の現状に対する反省から革新的な気運を生じた。北宋に始まり南宋の朱熹(しゅき)（朱子(しゅし)）によって完成する宋学（朱子学）がそれであって、五経にかわって四書（『論語』『孟子』『大学』『中庸(ちゅうよう)』）を尊重し、倫理学としての本来性を取り戻す一方、それを宇宙論的体系のなかに位置づけるものである。天地万物の根元は理である。理は純粋至善であって、人は本性としてその理をもつが（性即理）、同時に肉体を形成するについては物質的な気を交える。人は気によってもたらされる自己の欲望（人欲）を抑え、本性（天理）に立ち返らねばならない。その方法としては居敬(きょけい)（心を純粋専一の状態に保つ）と窮理(きゅうり)（事物について理を窮める。具体的には読書問学）の両面が必要である、というのである。朱子学は初め異端視されたが、士大夫の支持を得て隆盛に赴き、元代には伝統的儒教にかわって国教となり、以後清末にまで及んでいる。

　明代になると王陽明（王守仁）の心学がおこり、官学化して精気を失った朱子学をしのぐ活況を呈した。心即理を説き、理は外にあるのではなくてわが心が理である、という徹底した唯心(ゆいしん)主義の論である。しかしその末流には、極端に走って読書を廃し、経書の権威を否定する風潮すら生じた。

［楠山春樹］

清朝考証学

明末清初には陽明学末流を批判することから、宋明の新儒教を空疎として退け、訓詁学への復帰が叫ばれるようになった。宋学は依然として官学の位置を保持し続けるが、学術の主流は漢学に移ったのである。それは後漢時代の古文経学を基礎として、文字(もんじ)学、音韻(おんいん)学、歴史学、地理学等々の諸学を駆使し、実事求是(じつじきゅうぜ)（事実によって真理を求める）を志向するものであって、これを「考証学」と称する。しかし清学の関心はやがて前漢の今文経学に移っていく。ところが今文経学はもともと政治色の強いものであったことから、おりしも清末の動乱期に際会して、その学は諸種の改革運動に理論的根拠を提供するものとなった。清朝公羊(くよう)学がそれである。

［楠山春樹］

現代中国と儒教

清朝が滅んで中華民国が出現した（1912）ことにより、聖王（天子）を頂点とする儒教の政治学はもはや存在の意義を失い、その倫理説もまた自由平等を説く時代思潮の前に論難を浴びざるをえないこととなった。しかし権力者の側にはなおも儒教を温存しようとする動向があり、また孝倫理を中心とする儒教道徳は民衆の間に根強く生き残っていた。中華民国はやがて中華人民共和国となり（1949）、儒教批判の風潮は一段と強まった。とくに1974年における批林(ひりん)批孔の運動においてもっとも急激であった。しかし孔子の名がこうした政治運動に利用されることは、現在なおその影響の根強さを示すともいえよう。批孔運動が一過した現在、山東(さんとう／シャントン)省曲阜(きょくふ／チュイフー)にある孔子廟(びょう)が修復され、一部には儒教を再評価する風潮すらみえる。しかし、それが過去における文化遺産としての評価にとどまるのか、あるいはそのなかにいくぶんとも現代的意義をみいだそうとするものであるのか、興味深い問題である。

［楠山春樹］

日本における儒教

日本の儒教史は元寇(げんこう)（13世紀後半）のころを境にして、中国古代（漢・唐）儒教を受けた前期と、中国近世（宋(そう)・明(みん)・清(しん)）儒教を受けた後期に時代区分される。

［石田一良］

氏族国家と儒教

すでに早く4世紀の末、5世紀の初めころに、中国の古代儒教が伝来して、古来の神道(しんとう)倫理を補完して、氏族共同体を単位とする氏族国家のイデオロギーとなった。継体(けいたい)天皇の時代から欽明(きんめい)天皇のころにかけて（6世紀ころ）、朝廷が百済(くだら)に五経博士の交替派遣をしばしば請求したことは、儒教に対する古代国家の関心の強さを示している。

［石田一良］

律令国家と儒教

さて聖徳太子の執政を経て大化改新、天武(てんむ)の改革、持統(じとう)・文武(もんむ)の新政に至るころ（7、8世紀）は、氏族社会を基礎に律令(りつりょう)的官僚機構を上積みする氏制律令国家の建設の進むときであった。その間、聖徳太子の制定した十二階の冠位には徳仁礼信義智(ち)の儒教の徳目の名称がつけられ、『十七条憲法』にも一君万民の儒教道徳が強く説かれていた。中大兄皇子(なかのおおえのおうじ)と中臣鎌足(なかとみのかまたり)は、中国に留学した南淵請安(みなみぶちのしょうあん)から「周孔の道」（王道政治の理念）を学んで改新の業を成就(じょうじゅ)し、律令国家実現の端緒を開いた。天武の改革を経て律令が施行せられて、徳をもって民を治め教えるという儒教の政教主義が政治の理念となり、大学に設置された明経道院(みょうぎょうどういん)では漢・唐の注疏(ちゅうそ)によって儒書が講ぜられた。しかし放伐を是認する注疏や『孟子(もうし)』は排除されていた。このころ神道の神孫為君の大王観の土台のうえに、儒教の有徳為君の天子観、仏教の十善為君の国王観を振り分けにのせた天皇観が成立した。つまり、儒教が神仏二教と連合して新しい律令国家のイデオロギーとなったのである。

　奈良時代から平安時代にかけて、このイデオロギー連合体は仏教と儒教にかける重みを変えながら継承されたが、摂関時代・院政時代に入ると、政治のうえにも個人生活のうえにも儒教の力が弱まり、大学も衰退していった。

［石田一良］

武家幕府と禅儒

鎌倉時代に入ると、仏教においては戒律（倫理道徳を含む）を軽視する浄土(じょうど)教や天台本覚(ほんがく)思想が発達して、政権を分担した武士の道徳的要求に応ずるものがなかった。北条氏は中国から渡来した臨済(りんざい)禅僧の蘭渓道隆(らんけいどうりゅう)、兀庵普寧(ごったんふねい)、大休宗休(たいきゅうそうきゅう)、無学祖元(むがくそげん)、一山一寧(いっさんいちねい)らのもたらした新儒教（『孟子』を四書のうちに数える朱子(しゅし)学）に治世安民の道を求めた。『梅松論(ばいしょうろん)』は、すでに早く承久(じょうきゅう)の乱（1221）にあたって北条氏が『孟子』の放伐思想をもったというが、足利尊氏(あしかがたかうじ)を周の文王に擬して足利政権を天意にかなうものとたたえていることが注目される。

　臨済禅は中国より伝来当初から朱子学を伴ったが、室町時代に入ると、夢窓疎石(むそうそせき)は儒を禅の手段活弄(かつろう)と考え、義堂周信(ぎどうしゅうしん)は禅の悟りは儒の中庸の徳を含むと説き、岐陽方秀(きようほうしゅう)はさらに進んで禅儒は体用(たいよう)不二で、禅の悟りが体、儒の中庸は用であると説いて、陽明学に似た思想を王陽明に先だって形成した。ついで南村梅軒(ばいけん)は禅儒の関係を逆転して、禅の修行を手段とし「真儒の位」（中庸体得の境地）に至り、民生の安定と社会の秩序をもたらすべしと説いて、新興戦国大名の領国統治のイデオローグとなった。

　一方、保守的な宮廷儒学の方面でも、一条兼良(かねら)は伝統的な漢・唐の古注に新注（朱子注）を加え、宮廷儒官の清原宣賢(のぶかた)らはこれを受けて家学に朱子色を強めていった。

［石田一良］

徳川幕府と朱子学・陽明学

禅の枠組みのなかに取り入れられた朱子学をそのまま禅から取り出したのは、禅僧から還俗(げんぞく)した藤原惺窩(せいか)であり、禅の枠を外して朱子学を、純粋に、自由に、発展させたのは林羅山(らざん)であった。

　威富兼備を理想とした戦国大名は武家の治世安民の伝統的政治理想を継ぎ、富をもって領国民の生活を安定させ、威をもって領国内を秩序づけようとしていたので、陽明学風の儒学に共感して、南村梅軒や藤原惺窩らの説を歓迎したが、しかし、江戸時代（17世紀初以降）に入って封建秩序が安定し固定すると、陽明学が中国から伝来しても時すでに遅く、既存の体制を批判する反体制的機能を果たして、幕府諸藩の弾圧を受けた。中江藤樹(なかえとうじゅ)は仕官をやめて故郷の近江(おうみ)に隠棲(いんせい)し、熊沢蕃山(ばんざん)は幕府に疎まれ岡山を追われて関東に閉居し、大塩平八郎は幕府に叛(はん)して大坂で敗死し、西郷隆盛(たかもり)らは幕末に倒幕の運動を起こしている。陽明学が断続的に存続したのに対して、朱子学は江戸時代を貫流する大流派となった。林羅山は幕府に仕えて林家(りんけ)の祖となり、元禄(げんろく)（1688～1704）・享保(きょうほう)（1716～36）ころには木下順庵(きのしたじゅんあん)、室鳩巣(むろきゅうそう)、寛政(かんせい)（1789～1801）のころには柴野栗山(しばのりつざん)らが出て幕府に仕えて林家を助け、幕府も林家の朱子学を「正学」と認めて幕臣に異学を禁じ、諸藩のこれに倣うことを求めた。

［石田一良］

儒学の義理派と人情派

朱子学は、天が宇宙間の一切(いっさい)万物を創(つく)り（この天徳を元(げん)といい、人に宿って仁となる）、一切万物を支配する（この天徳を利といい、人に宿って義となる）、人は天の創造・主宰の働きを参賛すべしと説いた。ただし天は「懸空(けんくう)」（超越的人格神的）のものではなく、人と自然のうちに内在してのみ存在するから、人は眼前の君父らに仕える以外に天に仕える道はないと教えた。日本の朱子学徒はこの天の創造・主宰と人間の参賛を中国の朱子学者よりも強調して、朱子学をいわば「現世の宗教」として、大名領国の繁栄と秩序を維持する神学（イデオロギー）としたのである。一方、大名領下の被治者は、武士も商工民も農民も領主の恩に頼り領主の威に服するとき、領国の繁栄と秩序が将来するという政治的仕組みを日常の生活で経験していた。したがっておのずと領国内の上下の生活に義理（義）と人情(なさけ)（仁）の徳が貫流し、それがまた意識せられていたのである。

　この義理と人情の徳をドラマツルギー（作劇法）の因素としたのが、儒教と世情に通じた近松門左衛門(ちかまつもんざえもん)であった。近松が、武士は封建秩序を守って義理に厚く、町人は情に流れて義理を欠きやすいものと考えて、武士の義理堅さをテーマにして時代物を、町人の情もろさをテーマにして世話物(せわもの)をつくった。近松の時代物と世話物は江戸時代の生活の倫理、そのロゴス化の儒学思想の二つの流れを芸術的に表現したものであった。

［石田一良］

朱子学と古学派

日本の朱子学の説く天の創造と主宰の両作用（元と利の徳）、人間の仁と義の両徳（愛と敬(けい)の心）のうち、天の主宰と人間の参賛（理、利‐義敬）に重きを置いて支配と服従の教えを説いたのが、自ら敬義と号する山崎闇斎(あんさい)であった。貝原益軒(かいばらえきけん)は、天の創造、領主の恩徳（気、元‐仁愛）を支配階級の側から町人や農民に教えた。一方、この朱子学の説く理の働きと敬義の徳を退け、気の働きと仁愛の徳を重んじて元禄京都町人の立場から封建的身分・秩序を超えて愛の共同体を実現しようとしたのが京都の町人学者の伊藤仁斎(じんさい)である。享保期の封建支配階層武士の立場から、朱子学の説く内在的天を退けて超越的人格神的天をあげ、天意を体して先王が礼楽(れいがく)を制定したように、江戸幕府も制度を厳しく樹(た)つべしと説いたのが荻生徂徠(おぎゅうそらい)であった。仁斎と徂徠に代表される、中国古代儒学の復興を標榜(ひょうぼう)する古学派は、マイナスの面で朱子学という背骨(バックボーン)に接合されて封建教学の骨格(ほねぐみ)を構成したといえる。

　さて、朱子学を享保期の町人の立場――つまり封建共同体の一員としての町人の身分的自覚に受け止めて（神道・仏教の思想を加味して）町人の教えに翻転したのが石田梅岩（梅巌）(ばいがん)の心学であった。

［石田一良］

朱子学と江戸時代の儒学思想

朱子学はいわば江戸時代の儒教思想の背骨であった。これに儒学の諸流派がプラスの面、マイナスの面で結び付いて封建制度のイデオロギーの骨格を構築し、それに、朱子学の格物致知(かくぶつちち)による西洋自然科学の受容や朱子学の名分論に基づく尊皇運動（水戸学など）、中国清朝の儒教研究の影響を受けた折衷学派や考証学派の研究で肉づけがなされて、江戸時代の儒教思想が形成されたといってよかろう。

［石田一良］

明治における朱子学の宗教性喪失

明治時代に入ると、儒教は文明開化期には旧封建思想として西洋流の啓蒙(けいもう)思想に抑圧されていたが、明治10年代から復活し始めた。しかし「現世の宗教」である朱子学は、その天の宗教性を天皇制に吸収されて、天皇家を宗家(そうけ)に仰ぐ大家族国家支持の「道徳」となってしまった。今日、日本の儒教研究者が、朱子学が宗教（ただし還俗(げんぞく)した現世の宗教）であったことを忘れて、元来(はじめから)、道徳の教えであったと決めてかかるのは、元田永孚(もとだながざね)、西村茂樹(しげき)、井上哲次郎ないしは旧帝国大学東洋哲学科などによる朱子学の近代化――つまり哲学化・倫理学化――の結果であると考えられる。

［石田一良］

『宇野精一他編『講座東洋思想　第2巻　中国思想Ⅰ　儒家思想』（1967・東京大学出版会）』▽『阿部吉雄編『中国哲学』（1964・明徳出版社）』▽『島田虔次著『朱子学と陽明学』（岩波新書）』▽『『儒教の実践道徳』（『津田左右吉全集　第18巻』所収・1967・岩波書店）』▽『久木幸男著『大学寮と古代儒教』（1968・サイマル出版会）』▽『足利衍述著『鎌倉室町時代之儒教』（1932・日本古典全集刊行会）』▽『福島甲子三編『徳川公継宗七十年祝賀記念　近世日本の儒教』（1939・岩波書店）』