The lifestyle of gathering plant foods and hunting animals has supported human evolution for about 3 million years since the first humans appeared on Earth. Modern humans appeared about 35,000 years ago, but agriculture and livestock farming did not emerge until about 10,000 years ago, and it was only much later that farmers and livestock farmers became the majority of humanity. Today, only a small number of hunter-gatherers remain in remote areas of the Earth, far from civilization, in environments unsuitable for agriculture or livestock farming, but their lifestyle continues to carry on the traditions of primitive human culture. The natural environments of hunter-gatherer groups vary widely, from tropical forests and semi-deserts to the ice fields of the far north, and although their cultures have many differences resulting from adaptation to their respective environments, they share a commonality that inevitably accompanies a food-gathering economy. They do little to modify or control the environment, and live a "hand-to-mouth" economic life that is entirely dependent on natural resources, and do not process or store food for long periods of time. As a result, they migrate seasonally within a certain territory periodically, although the frequency and duration vary. On the other hand, except for the Eskimos who use boats and dog sleds, their only means of transportation and transportation is human power, and therefore the amount of household goods they can own is limited to the amount they can carry on their backs at one time. Therefore, the material culture of hunter-gatherers is characterized by its simplicity and poverty. Their nomadic lifestyle also has a strong influence on their economic and social organization. The population density of hunter-gatherer societies is low, with less than one person per square kilometer even in tribes living in environments with the most abundant food resources, and most societies have a density of 0.5 to 0.1 people per square kilometer or less. Such nomadic social groups are called bands, and can have several dozen to around 100 members. Bands are generally blood-related groups, but the rules that link families within a band are unclear. However, the strong tendency toward patrilineality is generally seen as a result of patrilocal marriage and exogamy. Thus, kinship relations are formed between bands through marriage, but there are no larger groups or integration mechanisms beyond the band. The unit of economic and social life is generally the nuclear family, and within the family and within the band, which is a collection of the family, there is division of labor and cooperation based on gender and age, but no further specialization or division of labor is seen. Furthermore, equality among band members is maintained through reciprocal distribution and exchange. There is no chief or authority figure that governs the band, and although individuals may have influence in individual aspects of band life depending on their knowledge, experience, and abilities, politically, band members are basically equal, and the band's unifying mechanism is left to customary norms. In this way, the band is essentially nothing more than a collection of families. Hunter-gatherers spend an average of 3 to 4 hours a day on making a living, and they spend their abundant leisure time chatting, singing, dancing, and other activities, through which communication within the band is constantly maintained. [Tanno Tadashi] "Modern Cultural Anthropology 2: Hunters and Gatherers" by E.R. Service, translated by Gamou Masao (1972, Kashima Publishing Co.)" ▽ "The Present State of Hunter-Gatherers: Transformation and Regeneration of Subsistence Culture" by S. Henry (1996, Gensosha) ▽ "Ainu and Hunter-Gatherer Societies: A Geographical Study of Group Mobility" by Endo Masatoshi (1997, Daimeido) ▽ "Living with Whales: Hunting the Sea, Trading the Mountains" by Kojima Kotaro and Egami Mikiyuki (Chuko Bunko)" Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
植物性食物を採集し、動物を狩るという生活様式は、地球上に最初の人類が誕生して以来およそ300万年にわたって人類の進化史を支えてきた。現生人類は約3万5000年前に出現したが、農耕と牧畜という生業形態が芽生えたのは約1万年前に至ってからのことであり、農耕民と牧畜民が人類の多数派となったのはさらにあとのことである。今日では、採集狩猟民は、文明から遠く隔たった地球上の辺境の、農耕や牧畜に不向きな環境のもとに少数が残存しているにすぎないが、彼らの生活様式は、今日なお人類の原初的な文化の伝統を引き継いでいる。 採集狩猟民諸集団の自然環境は、熱帯の森林や半砂漠から極北の氷原まで多岐にわたり、彼らの文化にはそれぞれの環境への適応によって生じたさまざまな相違があるものの、食糧獲得経済に必然的に伴う一般的共通性が存在する。彼らは環境の改変や統御をほとんど行わず、自然資源に全面的に依存した「手から口へ」の経済生活を営んでおり、長期的な食糧の加工保存や備蓄を行わない。そのため彼らは、頻度や期間には差異があるが、周期的に一定のテリトリー(領域)内を季節移動する。一方、ボートや犬ぞりを利用するエスキモーを除けば、彼らの移動と運搬の手段は人力だけであり、そのため彼らが所有できる家財道具は、一度に背負って運搬できるだけの量に限られる。したがって、採集狩猟民の物質文化は簡素で貧弱であることが著しい特徴となっている。 移動的生活様式は、彼らの経済・社会組織にも強い影響を与えている。採集狩猟社会の人口密度は希薄であり、食糧資源にもっとも恵まれた環境に住む部族でも1平方キロメートル当り1人に満たず、大部分の社会は0.5~0.1人またはそれ以下にとどまっている。こうした移動的社会集団をバンドといい、成員は数十人から100人前後である。バンドは一般に血縁集団であることが多いが、バンド内部の家族間を結び付ける規則性は明確でない。しかし一般的に父系的傾向が強いようにみられるのは、夫方居住婚、バンド外婚の結果からもたらされたものである。このように、バンド間には婚姻を通じて親族関係が結ばれているが、バンドを超えたより大きな集団や統合機構は存在しない。 経済・社会生活の単位は一般に核家族であり、家族内およびその集合体であるバンドのなかでは、性と年齢に基づく分業や協同が行われるが、それ以上の特殊な分業化や専門化はみられない。そして互酬的な分配や交換を通じて、バンドの成員の平等性が保たれている。バンドを統括する首長や権威者は存在せず、個人が知識と経験の豊かさや能力に応じて、バンド生活の個々の場面で影響力をもつことはあるが、政治的にもバンドの成員は基本的に平等であり、バンドの統合機構は慣習的な規範にゆだねられている。このようにバンドは本質的に家族の集合体にすぎない。採集狩猟民が生計維持のために費やす時間は、1日平均3~4時間といった程度であり、彼らは豊富な余暇の時間を談笑や歌と踊りなどによって過ごし、これらを通じてバンド内のコミュニケーションが絶えず保たれるのである。 [丹野 正] 『E・R・サーヴィス著、蒲生正男訳『現代文化人類学2 狩猟民』(1972・鹿島出版会)』▽『S・ヘンリ著『採集狩猟民の現在 生業文化の変容と再生』(1996・言叢社)』▽『遠藤匡俊著『アイヌと狩猟採集社会 集団の流動性に関する地理学的研究』(1997・大明堂)』▽『小島曠太郎・江上幹幸著『クジラと生きる 海の狩猟、山の交換』(中公文庫)』 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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