Construction industry

Japanese: 建設業 - けんせつぎょう
Construction industry

A business that mainly carries out construction work. In this case, construction work refers to (1) the construction, remodeling, repair, demolition, removal and relocation of buildings, civil engineering facilities and other structures attached to land and their associated equipment, (2) the improvement and construction of land, waterways, etc., and (3) the installation, dismantling and relocation of machinery and equipment.

[Yuji Kato]

History

It was after the Second World War that the Japanese construction industry began to assume a modern form. Before the war, it was not even called the construction industry; it was called civil engineering and construction contracting, and was not necessarily recognized as an independent industry in society. If we trace the origins of the construction industry, we can find its beginnings in the Edo period with master carpenters and construction workers. However, it was only after the Meiji period that it took on a full-fledged form. That is, representative construction companies at this stage include Shimizu-gumi and Kajima-gumi, which were founded in the first half of the 19th century, and these companies solidified their foundations by connecting with the demand for large-scale construction work such as railways, electricity, and factories that increased during the establishment of Japanese capitalism. After that, from the Taisho period to the early Showa period, these companies expanded along with the development of capitalism, and their management structure gradually changed from family-run individual management to capitalist enterprises such as general partnerships, limited partnerships, and joint stock companies.

The level of production technology in the construction industry before the Second World War was generally very low, and it was not until the period of high "growth" after the war that mechanization of labor methods began in earnest. Therefore, the majority of labor methods were limited to tools and simple machines that were simply larger versions of those tools. In addition to the original wood, bricks and tiles were introduced as construction materials, and with the increase in building construction from the Taisho period onwards, steel frames, concrete, and reinforced concrete became widespread.

[Yuji Kato]

Features

The construction industry is fundamentally a foundation for other industries and culture, and is deeply connected to the national economy. Therefore, although the construction industry has developed in line with the development of the economy, it has characteristics that are distinct from other industries.

First, the construction industry is, in principle, a made-to-order industry, which is based on orders from specific clients. Therefore, market production is not usually conducted for general consumers. In the construction industry, it is generally difficult to prepare materials, equipment, and labor and produce in a planned manner, as is the case with the production of standardized goods. For this reason, it is difficult to independently adopt mass production methods, and strict cost calculations are not possible, so the management of the industry is often unstable and tends to be speculative.

Secondly, the construction industry is not a fixed industry like general manufacturing, but rather a mobile industry. Therefore, the place of production is moved based on the orders of the client. This often hinders the efficient use of machinery and labor, making centralized management difficult.

Thirdly, the construction industry is inevitably subject to the strong influence of natural conditions, such as the need to halt construction work due to bad weather.

Fourth, in its production activities, the construction industry receives supplies of other industrial products such as steel, cement, and wood, and processes and assembles them. Therefore, the construction industry has a very close relationship with general industries, with raw material costs accounting for a large proportion of total construction costs.

[Yuji Kato]

Global Construction Industry

The construction industry in each country plays an important role in the development of the national economy. However, after the post-World War II reconstruction and the "growth" stage of the economy, in the 1970s, the composition ratio of construction investment in GNP (gross national product) of each country has been stagnating more and more in the international economic crisis, although it is not necessarily uniform depending on the conditions of each country. Looking at this in terms of the change in the composition ratio of construction investment in GNP of developed capitalist countries between 1964 and 1979, while in 1964 all five countries had construction investment of more than 10%, in 1979 all fell below 10%, except for Japan and the former West Germany. Since the late 1980s, the economic development of Asian countries has become remarkable, and while the ratio of construction investment to GDP (gross domestic product) in Western countries in the early 2000s has remained at around 4-8%, Asian countries, including Korea (about 16% in 2002), have been fluctuating on average at around 10-15%. In Japan, the rate fluctuated between around 15% and 18% from 1980 to 1990, but has been declining since 1991, reaching 10.8% in 2003.

The structural characteristics of the world's construction industry can be summed up in one word: the proportion of small and medium-sized enterprises is overwhelmingly high in each country. In particular, the proportion of so-called one-man firms, which do not have a single employee, is very high in the construction industry compared to other industries. While small and medium-sized enterprises have a large proportion of the industry, large construction companies boast huge production capacity and excellent productivity.

For example, Taisei Corporation, ranked first in Japan in terms of total orders received in fiscal 2003, has capital of 94.3 billion yen, annual orders received of 1.2038 trillion yen, and employs 9,558 people. In second place is Shimizu Corporation, with capital of 74.4 billion yen, annual orders received of 1.1937 trillion yen, and employs 9,420 people, while in third place is Kajima Corporation, with capital of 64.1 billion yen, annual orders received of 1.1781 trillion yen, and employs 10,161 people, respectively (as of 2003). These are mammoth companies comparable to other monopolies in the heavy chemical industry sector.

One of the significant differences between the construction industry in Europe and the United States and that in Japan is the significance and function of subcontractors. As will be described later, in the Japanese construction industry, subcontractors largely play the role of labor providers, whereas in Europe and the United States, they are specialists in specific professions and rarely provide only labor to the prime contractor, as in Japan. Another difference, related to the above situation, is that the negotiating function of Japanese labor unions is extremely weak, and in particular, on-site workers in the field offices managed by general contractors were completely unorganized until very recently, whereas in Europe and the United States, construction labor unions are an essential and vital presence in the history of the labor movement in each country and still wield a significant influence today.

[Yuji Kato]

Japan's Construction Industry

As mentioned above, the construction industry still occupies a significant position in the national economy in every country, but in Japan it is particularly high. In particular, the weight of the construction industry rapidly increased during the so-called high "growth" period. In other words, looking at the trend in the amount of investment in construction during that period, it increased more than 20-fold, from approximately 1 trillion yen in fiscal 1955 (Showa 30) to approximately 21 trillion yen in fiscal 1972. As a result, the construction industry achieved production growth that exceeded that of other industries, and the number of employees also increased rapidly.

The oil shock of 1973 eliminated the conditions for the rapid expansion of the Japanese economy, and real construction investment remained more or less flat until the 1980s. However, this was compounded by the national budget deficit and cuts in public works spending, and the country is now facing an unprecedented structural crisis and restructuring.

Thus, on the one hand, Japan's construction industry is striving to create demand by planning and realizing large-scale projects such as the Tokyo Bay Crossing Bridge, lifting various regulations to promote urban redevelopment works, and entering the small-scale construction market for extensions and renovations, while on the other hand, it is seeking a way out of the shrinking domestic market by looking to overseas construction markets. Also, aiming to expand its share both at home and abroad, it is strengthening its management structure to move away from passive contracting and towards knowledge-intensive engineering, advising, research, design, etc., and competition for orders between companies is becoming increasingly fierce.

The dominance of super-large corporations on the one hand and the existence of small and medium-sized enterprises on the other hand is a phenomenon seen in the construction industry of every country, and Japan is no exception. In other words, the vast majority of Japan's construction industry, 97%, is made up of small and medium-sized businesses with capital of less than 50 million yen (as of 2000), while less than 1% of companies have capital of 100 million yen or more, accounting for 43% of the total construction value. This structural characteristic is becoming more pronounced as competition for orders intensifies, and a high number of bankruptcies, nearly 6,000 cases per year, mainly among small and medium-sized enterprises, are occurring one after another, with a decrease in orders being the main factor.

Many of these small and medium-sized construction businesses play a special role in the subcontracting structure that is a feature of the Japanese construction industry. In other words, Japan's subcontracting system is based on the subcontractor structure of prime contractor → master → craftsman, and is layered, for example, from prime contractor → nominal party → chief organizer → organizer → core (boushin) → worker, with many middlemen intervening between the prime contractor and the workers. These middlemen usually call themselves "XX construction companies," but often do not have established labor means and have a strong aspect of being a so-called "man-in business" that provides only labor. This type of subcontracting structure allows prime contractor capital to respond to fluctuations in supply and demand by detaching and reattaching them from the end, like the limbs of a loose mollusk.

At the same time, this system also functions to transfer costs. In other words, at each level of the multi-layered subcontracting system, from the prime contractor to the work site, a certain amount of profit is taken in advance, and the burden is passed on to the subcontractor, the next subcontractor, and finally to the subcontracted workers at the very bottom.

After the advancement of construction productivity since the period of high economic growth, recent trends show signs of the spread of mechanization in field work, with continuous construction, automation, and systemization, and in dam construction, productivity has been about 10 times that of the famous Sakuma Dam, which was completed in 1956. In addition, the proportion of prefabricated and 2x4 construction methods is increasing for detached houses, while the status of traditional wooden construction methods is gradually declining, and the modularization of housing is also rapidly progressing. In this environment, traditional skilled labor is showing a tendency to become obsolete, and unskilled heavy labor is being replaced by machines, increasing the proportion of labor that can be acquired through short-term apprenticeship or that is mainly semi-skilled, without the need for apprenticeship experience.

With these changes in the production process, the subcontracting system as a labor supply system has been gradually restructured in response to demands from prime contractors to reduce costs and shorten construction periods, while at the same time strengthening direct control and management of on-site workers, and, in the name of developing subcontractors, corporatizing the nominal holders, and absorbing some of the independent functions, including the training of the skills of the supervisors under them, into prime contractors and first-tier subcontractors. Therefore, the subcontracting restructuring can be said to be an attempt to realize in the construction industry the accumulation method seen in industry, in which the competitiveness of prime contractor capital is increased by exploiting the upper echelons of traditional labor subcontractors while allowing them to assume an independent corporate form.

However, this accumulation method only becomes significant when it is combined with the division of labor groups at the bottom of a hierarchical subcontracting structure, resulting in no rights and poor wages and working conditions. Therefore, labor subcontractors and the labor they supply have been given a new raison d'être in determining the success or failure of the policies to develop first-tier subcontractors, which have become indispensable to prime contractors, and they still occupy an important position as a characteristic of the subcontracting system in the construction industry.

[Yuji Kato]

"History of the Japanese Construction Economy" by Harazawa Togo (1944, Tomiyama Publishing) " ▽ "Kajima Construction Co., Ltd., edited by the Monopoly Analysis Research Group" (included in "Japan's Monopoly Companies 4", 1970, Shin Nihon Shuppansha)""Labor-Management Relations in the Construction Industry" by Takanashi Masaru (1978, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)""The Construction Industry" by Nakamura Yoshimitsu (1981, Kyoikusha)""Precariously Employed Workers in Modern Japan" by Kato Yuji, Volumes 1 and 2 (1980, 1982, Ochanomizu Shobo)""Construction Industry Theory" by Uchiyama Shozo (1983, Toshi Bunkasha)""Precariously Employed Workers in Modern Japan" by Kato Yuji, Revised and Enlarged Edition (1991, Ochanomizu Shobo)""The Transformation of Major Construction Companies - Guidelines for 21st Century Construction Management" by the Editorial Office of the Nikkan Kensetsu Kogyo Shimbun (1991, published by the Nikkan Kensetsu Kogyo Shimbun, Sagami Shobo)Nagato Noboru, Dictionary of Construction Industry Terms (1993, Nihon Jitsugyo Publishing)Nagato Noboru, The Challenge of Reviving the Construction Industry -- With a New Bidding System and Open Policy, 530,000 Contractors... (1994, Nihon Jitsugyo Publishing)Muneshige Hiroyuki, Illustrated Map of Power in the Construction Industry -- What is Happening in This Huge Industry Now (1996, Paru Publishing)Kanemoto Yoshitsugu (ed.), Japan's Construction Industry -- Unraveling the Mysteries of an Unknown Huge Industry (1999, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)Shiino Jun, New Developments in Construction Logistics -- The Key to Transforming the Construction Industry in the IT Era (2002, Shokokusha)Watanabe Kazuaki, New Edition Illustrated Construction Industry Handbook (2002, Toyo Keizai Inc.) ▽ Construction Economics Research Institute (ed.), The Shrinking Construction Market and a Way Forward for the Construction Industry (2002, Taisei Publishing) "The Construction Industry Requires New Responses and Effective Public Investment and Urban Renewal," edited by the Construction Economics Research Institute (2003, Taisei Publishing)" ▽ "Working Conditions and Labor Agreements in the Construction Industry: A Study of Germany, France, and the UK," written by Hajime Wada, Miki Kawaguchi, and Yoji Furukawa (2003, Shunposha)""Considering the Changing Construction Market and Construction Industry," written by Hajime Suzuki (2004, Construction General Services)""Japan's Construction Industry," written by Osamu Furukawa (Iwanami Shinsho)

[Reference items] | Kajima Corporation | Subcontractor | Shimizu Corporation |Taisei Corporation | Two-by -four construction method

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

建設工事を施工することを主としている事業。この場合、建設工事とは、(1)建築物、土木施設、その他土地に接着する工作物とそれらに付属する設備を新設、改造、修繕、解体、除去および移設すること、(2)土地、水路などを改良、造成すること、(3)機械装置を備え付け、解体、移設することである。

[加藤佑治]

沿革

日本の建設業が近代的な姿態をまとうようになったのは第二次世界大戦後のことである。戦前の段階においては、建設業という呼称さえなく土木建築請負業とよばれ、独立した産業として社会的にかならずしも認知されていなかった。そこで請負業としての成立をたどると、その端緒は、江戸時代の仕事師(鳶(とび))や大工などの棟梁(とうりょう)にみいだされる。だが、それが本格的形成をみるのは明治以降のことである。すなわち、この段階の建設業の代表的な経営としては、19世紀前半に創業された清水(しみず)組、鹿島(かじま)組などがあるが、これらは、日本資本主義の成立過程で増大した鉄道、電力、工場などの大規模な工事需要に結び付くことによって、その基盤を固めた。その後、大正、昭和初期にかけて、これらの経営は資本主義の発展とともに膨張し、やがてその経営形態も同族的な個人経営から合名、合資、株式会社といった資本主義的企業としての組織をしだいに整えていった。

 これら第二次世界大戦以前の段階の建設業の生産技術水準はおしなべてきわめて低位であり、その労働手段の機械化が本格化するのは戦後の高度「成長」期をまたねばならなかった。したがって労働手段の大半は、道具とそれの単に大型化した程度のごく簡単な機械にとどまった。また建築工事の資材としては、当初の木材に加え、れんが、タイルなどが導入され、さらに大正期以降のビル工事の増大を通じて、鉄骨、コンクリート、鉄筋コンクリートなどが普及をみた。

[加藤佑治]

特徴

建設業は本来、他の産業ないし文化の基盤を形づくるものであり、国民経済に深いかかわりを有する。したがって、建設業は経済の発展に応じて発展してきたが、他の産業とは別個の特徴を有する。

 第一に建設業の生産は、原則として特定の注文者の注文によって行われる受注産業である。したがって通常一般の需要者を対象として市場生産を行うことがない。建設業は、一般的には、規格化された商品生産のように資材設備や労働力を準備して計画的に生産することがむずかしい。このために自主的に量産方式をとりにくく、また厳密な原価計算をすることができないので、その経営はしばしば安定性がなく、投機的なものになる傾向がある。

 第二に建設業は、一般製造業のように定置産業ではなく、いわば移動産業である。したがって注文者の注文に基づいて生産の場所を移転する。したがって機械や労働力の能率的な利用が妨げられる場合が多く、経営の集中管理が困難である。

 第三に建設業にあっては、天候の都合によって工事の中止を強いられるといった自然条件の強い影響を免れがたい性格を有する。

 第四にその生産活動において、鉄鋼、セメント、木材など他の工業生産物の供給を受け、これらを加工したり組み立てる産業である。したがって建設業は原材料費の全工事費に占める割合が大きく、一般産業ときわめて密接な関係をもっている。

[加藤佑治]

世界の建設業

各国の建設業は、それぞれ国民経済の発展に重要な役割を果たしている。しかし第二次世界大戦後の復興から経済の「成長」の段階を経て、1970年代に入ると、各国の諸条件によりかならずしも一様ではないが、国際的な経済危機のもとで全体として各国のGNP(国民総生産)に占める建設投資額の構成比は停滞の度を募らせている。これを、発達した資本主義国の1964年と1979年の建設投資額のGNPに占める構成比の変化としてみると、1964年には5か国のすべてが10%以上であったにもかかわらず、1979年には日本と旧西ドイツを除き、いずれも10%を下回った。1980年代後半以降はアジア諸国の経済発展が顕著となり、2000年代初頭の対GDP(国内総生産)比は、欧米諸国はおおむね4~8%前後にとどまっているが、アジア諸国は、韓国(2002年、約16%)をはじめ平均10~15%前後で推移している。日本は1980~1990年度は約15~18%前後で推移していたが、1991年度以降は減少を続け、2003年度では10.8%となっている。

 世界の建設業の構造的な特質を一言にしていえば、各国とも零細企業の比率が圧倒的に高いことにある。とくに建設業のなかにおいて1人の従業員ももたない業者、いわゆるone man firmsの占める比重が他の産業に比較して非常に高いことである。このように零細企業が大きな比重をもっている反面、他方では大建設会社が巨大な生産力と優秀な生産性を誇っている。

 たとえば、2003年度総受注高で国内1位にランクされている大成建設は、資本金943億円、年間受注額1兆2038億円、従業員9558人であり、2位の清水建設は、それぞれ744億円、1兆1937億円、9420人、また3位にランクされている鹿島建設は、それぞれ641億円、1兆1781億円、1万0161人(2003年現在)など、他の重化学工業部門の独占体に匹敵するマンモス企業である。

 また欧米各国における建設業がわが国のそれと著しく相違していることは、一つに下請(したうけ)業者sub-contractorの意義と機能であろう。後述するようにわが国の建設業では、下請業者は多分に労務提供業者的役割をしているのに反し、欧米では専門職種別の業者specialistであり、わが国のように元請(もとうけ)に対して労務のみを提供するようなことは少ない。もう一つは、上記のような状況とも関連して、日本の労働組合の交渉機能がきわめて弱く、とくにゼネコン(総合工事業者)が統括する野帳場(のちょうば)の現場労働者はごく最近までまったくの未組織状態にあったのに対し、欧米では建設業の労働組合はそれぞれの国の労働運動史に欠かせない枢要な存在であるとともに、現在でも無視できない影響力を行使していることである。

[加藤佑治]

日本の建設業

前述したように、国民経済における建設業の占める地位は各国とも依然低いものではないが、わが国のそれはとくに高い位置にある。とくにいわゆる高度「成長」の過程で建設業の比重は急速に高まった。すなわち、その間の建設投資額の推移をみると、1955年度(昭和30)の約1兆円から、1972年度の約21兆円へと実に20倍以上となっている。この結果、建設業は他産業を上回る生産の伸びを実現し、その就業者数も急速に増加した。

 1973年のオイル・ショックは、日本経済のそれまでのような急速な膨張の条件を喪失せしめ、実質建設投資額は1980年代に至るまでほぼ横ばいのままに推移してきたが、それに国家財政の赤字―公共工事支出抑制も加わり、かつてない構造的な危機と再編に直面している。

 こうして今日わが国建設業は、一方で東京湾横断橋に代表される大規模プロジェクトの企画と実現、都市再開発工事促進のための諸規制の撤廃、さらに増改築など小規模工事市場への進出など需要の創出に努め、他方で狭まる国内市場のかわりにその活路を海外建設市場に求めるようになっている。また国内外におけるシェアの拡大を目ざし、経営体質を受動的な請負から知識集約的なエンジニアリング、アドバイザー、調査、設計などを中心とする脱請負志向を強めるとともに、企業間の受注競争が激化の度を募らせている。

 一方における超大型企業の君臨、他方における中小零細企業群の存在は、各国建設業にみられる現象であるが、それはわが国においても例外ではない。すなわち、わが国建設業の大部分にあたる97%が資本金5000万円未満の中小業者で占められている(2000年現在)反面、わずか1%にも満たない資本金1億円以上の会社が施工総額の43%を占めている。この構造的特質は、受注競争の激化のもとでいっそう顕著になりつつあり、中小企業を中心に、年間6000件近い高水準の倒産が、受注の減少を主要な一要因として続発している。

 そしてこの中小建設業の多くは、日本の建設業の特徴でもある下請構造における特殊な役割を担っている。すなわち、わが国下請制度は、元請→親方→職人という下請の形態を基礎として、たとえば、元請→名義人→大世話役→世話役→棒心(ぼうしん)→労働者というように重層化しており、元請と労働者の間に多くの中間業者が介在している。そしてこれらの中間業者は、通常「○○工務店」を名のっているが、往々にして整備された労働手段をもたず、労働力のみを提供するいわゆる「人入れ稼業」的側面を強く有している。このような下請編成は元請資本にとっては、あたかもルーズな軟体動物の手足のように、需給の変動に対応して末端から切り離し、またとってつけることを可能にしている。

 また同時にこの編成は、費用損失の転化の機能をも果たしている。すなわち、元請から現場に至る重層的な下請制度の各階層で、所定の利潤が順次先取りされて、そのしわ寄せが下請に、さらにその次の下請に、そして最後に末端の下請労働者に及ぶという形になっている。

 高度成長期以来の建設生産力の高度化を経て、近年のその傾向は、機械化の点では野帳場では連続化、自動化、システム化が広がる気配を示し、ダム工事では1956年完成のかの佐久間ダム工事の約10倍の生産性を実現している。また戸建て住宅については、プレハブや2×4(ツーバイフォー)工法が比率を高め、木造在来工法の地位はしだいに低下するとともに、住宅の部品化も急速に進んでいる。こうしたなかで、伝統的な熟練労働力が陳腐化傾向を示すとともに、不熟練重筋労働力も機械にとってかえられつつあり、短期の見習いで習得できる、あるいは見習い経験の要しない半熟練型を主体とする労働力の比重を高めている。

 こうした生産過程の変動に伴い労務供給的な下請制度は、元請のコスト削減、工期の短縮などの要請によって、一方で現場労働者に対する直接の支配、管理を強化するとともに、他方では下請育成の名のもとに名義人の企業化が図られ、その配下の世話役親方の技能養成をはじめとするいくつかの自立的機能を元請および一次下請企業が吸収するという形で、しだいに再編されてきた。したがって下請再編は、従来の労務下請業者の上層部分を、企業としての自立的形態をとらせつつ収奪することによって、元請資本の競争力を高めるという工業においてみられる蓄積方式を、建設業において具体化させようとするものといえよう。

 しかしながら、その蓄積方式は、階層的な下請構造の末端における労働者集団の分断、したがって無権利で劣悪な賃金、労働条件とセットされることにより初めて大きな意義をもつことになる。それゆえに、労務下請とそれにより供給される労働者は、元請にとって不可欠な存在となってきている一次下請企業育成策の成否を左右するという新たな存在意義を付与されながら、建設業における下請制の特質として依然重要な位置を占めているのである。

[加藤佑治]

『原沢東吾著『日本建築経済史』(1944・冨山房)』『独占分析研究会編「鹿島建設株式会社」(『日本の独占企業4』所収・1970・新日本出版社)』『高梨昌著『建設産業の労使関係』(1978・東洋経済新報社)』『中村賀光著『建設業界』(1981・教育社)』『加藤佑治著『現代日本における不安定就業労働者』上下(1980、82・御茶の水書房)』『内山尚三著『建設産業論』(1983・都市文化社)』『加藤佑治著『現代日本における不安定就業労働者』増補改訂版(1991・御茶の水書房)』『日刊建設工業新聞社編集局著『大手建設企業の変貌――21世紀建設経営への指針』(1991・日刊建設工業新聞社、相模書房発売)』『長門昇著『建設業界用語辞典』(1993・日本実業出版社)』『長門昇著『建設業界再生への挑戦――新入札制度と開放政策で53万業者は…』(1994・日本実業出版社)』『宗重博之著『図解でわかる建設業界勢力地図――いま巨大産業で何が起こっているのか』(1996・ぱる出版)』『金本良嗣編『日本の建設産業――知られざる巨大業界の謎を解く』(1999・日本経済新聞社)』『椎野潤著『建設ロジスティクスの新展開――IT時代の建設産業変革への鍵』(2002・彰国社)』『渡辺一明著『新版 図解 建設業界ハンドブック』(2002・東洋経済新報社)』『建設経済研究所編著『縮小が続く建設市場と建設産業の活路』(2002・大成出版社)』『建設経済研究所編著『新たな対応が求められる建設産業と効果的な公共投資・都市再生』(2003・大成出版社)』『和田肇・川口美貴・古川陽二著『建設産業の労働条件と労働協約――ドイツ・フランス・イギリスの研究』(2003・旬報社)』『鈴木一著『変わる建設市場と建設産業について考える』(2004・建設総合サービス)』『古川修著『日本の建設業』(岩波新書)』

[参照項目] | 鹿島建設(株) | 下請制工業 | 清水建設(株) | 大成建設(株) | ツーバイフォー工法

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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