Law of impoverishment

Japanese: 窮乏化法則 - きゅうぼうかほうそく
Law of impoverishment

This refers to the fact that under capitalist production and its development, the condition of the working class deteriorates and they are inevitably impoverished (Verelendung, German). It is also called the law of impoverishment. Although Marx did not use this term, he clarified its contents in his analysis of the accumulation process of capital in Volume 1 of Das Kapital as follows:

[Kaido Katsutoshi]

Marx's theory of impoverishment

In capitalist production, capitalists exploit the surplus value (appearing as profit) that workers create in the production process, thereby increasing social productivity and ensuring the survival of workers, so the extension of working hours, increased labor intensity, excessive labor, and development of labor productivity, which increase surplus value, increase the production of surplus value both absolutely and relatively, but on the other hand, create a state of slavery for workers and impoverish all workers. Therefore, as long as the increase in social productivity takes the form of the production of surplus value, capitalism becomes a system of wage slavery for workers.

The slavery of workers in the production of this surplus value is also seen in the accumulation of capital. In the course of accumulation, the development of labor productivity is seen as the advancement of the organic composition of capital. In other words, the part of capital that is invested in the means of production, such as machines and raw materials (called constant capital) increases relatively to the part of capital that purchases labor power, that is, the part of capital that is invested in the value of labor power = wages (called variable capital). Furthermore, with the concentration of capital, the advancement of the organic composition of capital progresses at an accelerated pace. As a result of capital accumulation, labor productivity increases. This saves the labor required to produce a certain labor product, but does not reduce the labor per person, and appears as a saving in labor power that functions capital within a certain amount of capital, and reduces the demand for workers at an accelerated pace. This is because the ratio of variable capital to the total capital decreases relatively. The decrease in demand for workers promotes the accelerated progressive accumulation of capital as a whole in order to put already functioning workers to work, and becomes the source of further advancement of the organic composition of capital, that is, the decrease of variable capital compared to constant capital. As a result, the relative decrease in variable capital creates a relatively surplus working population that is superfluous to capital's desire for moderate value growth, i.e., the unemployed.

This formation of relative surplus population causes the same amount of variable capital to work excessively, replacing adult labor with child labor and higher-grade labor with more low-grade labor. This causes a relative surplus population to form faster than the technological changes in the production process. The surplus population puts pressure on the working conditions and wages of employed workers. Thus, the industrial reserve army of surplus population becomes larger compared to the number of employed active workers, the surplus population in poverty increases, and the number of people receiving relief increases. This inevitably leads to the accumulation of poverty corresponding to the accumulation of capital. In contrast to the accumulation of wealth, the accumulation of poverty, labor pains, slavery, ignorance, brutality, and moral degradation on the part of the workers. Thus, under capitalism, the greater the productive power of labor, the greater the pressure on the workers to work, and the more unstable the conditions of existence of the workers who sell their labor power become due to the increase in the capital of others. As capital accumulates, the condition of the workers cannot help but worsen, regardless of whether they are paid high or low, which inevitably leads to the poverty and destitution of the workers.

[Kaido Katsutoshi]

The impoverishment debate

The above-mentioned impoverishment rooted in capitalist production was brought into focus as a law through a debate within the German Social Democratic Party at the end of the 19th century. First, Eduard Bernstein, seeing the rise in real wages for workers in Western Europe from the middle of the century, denied the impoverishment of the working class and advocated the revision of the basic principles of Marxism and the improvement of capitalism. In response, Karl Kautsky denied the increase in physiological impoverishment, but instead advocated social impoverishment. This debate led to the denial and revision of the impoverishment theory, but impoverishment became widely recognized due to the devastation of World War I, the postwar exhaustion, and the mass unemployment that occurred after the 1929 depression. Against this background, Lenin emphasized that not only relative impoverishment but also physiological and absolute impoverishment was increasing, and the Comintern's theory of physiological and biological impoverishment was born.

After the Second World War, in the 1950s, as the reconstruction of various countries was completed, the argument that workers' lives could be improved by increasing productivity spread, based on the position of income revolution and people's capitalism, which denied the impoverishment of workers, and the debate resumed. The debate covered both relative impoverishment and absolute impoverishment, but the argument for absolute impoverishment was particularly central to the debate, and there were two positions on the argument. One was to view the standard of living of workers not only in terms of real wages but also in terms of the overall conditions of work and life, such as labor intensity, unemployment, and housing, and to argue that absolute impoverishment was due to a decline in these conditions. This was the argument of J. Kuczynski and others. The other was to argue that absolute impoverishment was due to wages falling below the value of labor power, and this was the argument of A. Arzumanyan and others. In Japan, too, the productivity improvement movement began around 1955, and these international arguments were introduced, so the debate on impoverishment became lively.

Under modern capitalism, which has seen rapid growth in the form of accumulation, there is the enlargement of monopoly capital, which has a form of accumulation that alternates between leaps and stagnation, and impoverishment that manifests itself as the waste of the lives and health of workers and the general public under the phenomenon of mass production. This impoverishment is mainly due to environmental destruction and urban problems, such as occupational diseases, work-related accidents, lack of security facilities, pollution of the air, soil, groundwater, rivers, lakes, and beaches, traffic accidents, disasters and environmental destruction associated with development, the destruction of nature and cultural assets, drug damage, and inadequate measures by the state and local governments to deal with these social losses. There is also poverty, hunger, and the export of environmental destruction that began with development in developing countries and the third world. A theoretical elucidation of the problem of impoverishment at this current stage remains to be done.

[Kaido Katsutoshi]

"Capitalism and Poverty" edited by Kishimoto Eitaro (1957, Nippon Hyoronsha)""Modern Capitalism and the Law of Impoverishment" edited by Toyoda Shiro (1957, Otsuki Shoten)""Modern Capitalism and the Problem of Poverty" by Miyamoto Kenichi (included in "Complete Works of Economics 20: Theory of Modern Capitalism", 1970, Chikuma Shobo)""Das Kapital Vol. 1" by Marx (translated by Mukaizaka Itsuro, Iwanami Bunko / translated by Okazaki Jiro, Otsuki Shoten, Kokumin Bunko)"

[References] | Poverty issues | Working class

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

資本主義生産とその発展のもとでは労働者階級の状態は悪化し、窮乏化Verelendung(ドイツ語)せざるをえないことをいう。貧困化法則ともいう。マルクスはこの用語は使っていないが、その内容を『資本論』第1巻の資本の蓄積過程分析で次のように明らかにしている。

[海道勝稔]

マルクスの窮乏化論

資本主義生産においては、労働者が生産過程で創出する剰余価値(利潤として現れる)を資本家が搾取し、それによって社会的生産力を高め、労働者の生存が保証されるから、剰余価値を増大させる労働時間の延長、労働強度の増大、過度の労働、労働生産性の発展は、絶対的にも相対的にも剰余価値の生産を増大するとともに、反面、労働者の隷属状態をつくりだして、すべての労働者を窮乏化させるよう作用する。したがって、社会的生産力の増大が剰余価値の生産の形態をとる限り、資本主義は労働者にとって賃金奴隷制度になっているのである。

 この剰余価値の生産のもとの労働者の隷属状態は、資本の蓄積にも現れる。蓄積の進行においては、労働生産力の発展は資本の有機的構成の高度化として現れる。すなわち、資本のうち機械、原料など生産手段に投ぜられる資本部分(不変資本という)が、労働力を購買する資本部分つまり労働力の価値=賃金に投ぜられる資本部分(可変資本という)に比べて相対的に増大していく。さらに資本の集中を伴い資本の有機的構成の高度化は加速的に進む。資本の蓄積の結果、労働生産力の増大となる。これは、一定の労働生産物の生産に必要な労働を節約しはするが、1人当りの労働を軽減することなしに、一定の資本のなかで資本を機能させる労働力の節約となって現れ、労働者に対する需要を加速的に減少させる。可変資本の資本全体に占める比率は相対的に低下するからである。労働者に対する需要減少は、すでに機能している労働者を働かせるためにも資本全体の加速的累進的蓄積を促進し、いっそうの資本の有機的構成高度化の源泉、すなわち不変資本に比べての可変資本の減少となる。その結果、可変資本の相対的減少は、資本の中位の価値増殖欲にとって余分な、その意味で相対的で過剰な労働者人口、すなわち失業者を生み出す。

 この相対的過剰人口の形成は、同じ可変資本量で同じ労働力量を過度に労働させ、成年労働を幼少年婦人労働によって、高級労働をより多くの低級労働によって駆逐する。そのことによって相対的過剰人口を生産過程の技術的変革よりももっと早く形成する。過剰人口は就業労働者の労働条件や賃金を圧迫する。こうして就業している現役労働者に比べ過剰人口の産業予備軍が大きくなり、貧困状態に置かれる過剰人口が増大し、受救貧民も増大する。資本の蓄積に対応する貧困の蓄積を必然にする。富の蓄積に対し、労働者の側の貧困、労働苦、奴隷状態、無知、粗暴、道徳的堕落の蓄積である。このように資本主義のもとでは、労働生産力が増大すればするほど、労働者の就業に対する圧迫は大きくなり、他人の資本の増大のために、自己の労働力を売る労働者の生存条件はますます不安定となる。資本が蓄積されるにつれて、労働者の状態は、彼の受ける支払いが高かろうと低かろうと悪化せざるをえないことになり、労働者の貧困、窮乏化を必然化している。

[海道勝稔]

窮乏化をめぐる論争

以上のような資本主義生産に根ざしている窮乏化が法則としてクローズアップされたのは、19世紀末のドイツ社会民主党内での論争によってである。まずエドアルド・ベルンシュタインが、この世紀の中ごろから西ヨーロッパの労働者の実質賃金が上昇しているのをとらえて、労働者階級の窮乏化を否定し、マルクス主義の基本原理の修正と資本主義の改良を唱え、これに対してカール・カウツキーは、生理的窮乏の増大は否定したが、それにかわるものとして社会的窮乏化を主張した。この論争を契機として、窮乏化論の否定・修正が進行したが、第一次世界大戦の惨禍、戦後の疲弊、1929年恐慌以後の大量の失業の発生によって窮乏化は衆目の認めるところとなり、この背景のもとにレーニンは、単に相対的窮乏化のみならず生理的・絶対的窮乏も増大していることを強調し、コミンテルンの生理的・生物学的窮乏化の理論が生まれた。

 第二次世界大戦後は、1950年代になって各国の復興が完了するとともに、所得革命、人民資本主義などの立場にたって、労働者の窮乏化を否定し、生産性向上によって労働者の生活を向上させることができるという主張が広がったため、論争が再開された。論争は相対的窮乏化と絶対的窮乏化の両面にわたったが、とくに絶対的窮乏化を論証することが論議の中心となり、その論証には次の二つの立場があった。一つは、労働者の生活水準を実質賃金のみならず労働強度、失業状態、住宅など労働・生活の諸条件を総体的にとらえ、その下落によって絶対的窮乏化を論証するもので、J・クチンスキーらの主張がこれに属する。他は、賃金が労働力の価値以下になるものと解して絶対的窮乏化を論証するもので、A・アルズマニャンらの主張がこれに属する。日本においても、1955年(昭和30)ごろから生産性向上運動が始まるとともに、これらの国際的な論議も紹介されたため、窮乏化をめぐる論議が活発に展開された。

 現代の高度成長した蓄積様式という現代資本主義のもとでは、飛躍と停滞の蓄積様式をもつ独占資本の巨大化、大量生産現象のもとでの労働者および住民大衆の生命および健康の浪費として現れる貧困化がある。すなわち、職業病、労働災害、保安設備の不足、大気・土壌・地下水・河川湖沼・海浜の汚染などの公害、交通事故、開発に伴う災害・環境破壊、自然や文化財の荒廃、薬害、これら社会的損失に対する国家・自治体による対策の不備など、主として環境破壊や都市問題などに由来する窮乏化がそれである。さらに途上国などの第三世界における開発に始まる貧困と飢餓、環境破壊の輸出などもある。このような現段階における窮乏化問題の理論的解明については、なお今後に残されている。

[海道勝稔]

『岸本英太郎編『資本主義と貧困』(1957・日本評論社)』『豊田四郎編『現代資本主義と窮乏化法則』(1957・大月書店)』『宮本憲一著『現代資本主義と貧困問題』(『経済学全集20 現代資本主義論』所収・1970・筑摩書房)』『マルクス著『資本論 第1巻』(向坂逸郎訳・岩波文庫/岡崎次郎訳・大月書店・国民文庫)』

[参照項目] | 貧困問題 | 労働者階級

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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