Kamakura period

Japanese: 鎌倉時代 - かまくらじだい

The Kamakura period is a name given to a period based on the location of the government. Ukichi Taguchi first used this name in 1885 (Meiji 18) in his book "The Nature of Modernization in Japan."

It cannot be said for sure that the government was under the Kamakura Shogunate during this period, but the period when the Shogunate was located in Kamakura is called the Kamakura period.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Periodization and Overview

Various theories regarding the establishment of the shogunate

There is no disagreement that the end of the Kamakura period was in 1333 (Genko 3/Shokei 2) when the shogunate was destroyed, but there are various theories about when the shogunate was established, and therefore various views are possible about the beginning of the Kamakura period.

(1) 1180 (Jisho 4) Theory: This refers to the establishment of an independent state in the eastern part of Japan in the period from October to December of the 4th year of the Jisho era, and in particular to the December period when Minamoto no Yoritomo's residence was completed and he moved there.

(2) 1183 (Juei 2) Theory: This was when, by an imperial decree issued in October of the second year of Juei, Yoritomo was granted command of the provincial government offices in the eastern provinces.

(3) 1185 (Bun'ei 1) Theory: This was when Yoritomo was granted imperial permission to appoint Shugo and Jito (local steward) to various domains.

(4) 1190 (Kenkyu 1) theory: This was when Yoritomo's positions as Sotsuibushi (chief pursuer) and Soji (chief land steward) of Japan were confirmed by the Imperial Court.

(5) 1192 (Kenkyu 3) theory: This was when Yoritomo was appointed Seii Taishogun by the Imperial Court.

Next, I will explain the process of the establishment of the shogunate, paying attention to these points in time.

In August 1180, Yoritomo raised an army in Izu to overthrow the Taira clan. He was initially defeated at the Battle of Ishibashiyama in Sagami, but eventually recovered his power and entered Kamakura, where he defeated the Taira's punitive forces at the Battle of Fujigawa. Yoritomo did not travel to Kyoto, but continued to manage the eastern provinces in Kamakura, establishing a samurai-dokoro (a place for samurai) to control his vassals, and in December his own residence was completed and he moved in. Architecturally speaking, Yoritomo's residence is the shogunate, but the Azuma Kagami records that at the ceremony marking the move to the new residence, the vassals recommended Yoritomo as "Lord of Kamakura." At that time, Yoritomo based his rule over the eastern provinces on the imperial edicts of Emperor Mochihito, which stated his intention to overthrow the imperial court of Emperor Takakura and Emperor Antoku, who were supported by the Taira clan, and ascend to the throne. Therefore, Yoritomo's government, based on the imperial edicts of Emperor Mochihito, was not simply a military government for the eastern provinces, but an independent nation that could not coexist with the imperial court in Kyoto, and the ceremony for moving to the new residence represented the coronation ceremony of the king of an independent nation. Theory (1) considers that the shogunate was established at this point.

Yoritomo's motivation for raising an army was not only that he had received an imperial decree from Emperor Mochihito, but also that he had received a secret decree from Emperor Goshirakawa, who, through Mongaku, ordered the overthrow of the Taira clan. Therefore, when the Taira clan fled the capital in 1183 and the Emperor regained power, the alliance between the Emperor and Yoritomo progressed rapidly, and in October of the same year, the Emperor issued an Imperial decree in October, 2nd year of Juei, officially recognizing Yoritomo's rule by granting him command of the provincial government offices in the eastern provinces, which he had previously ruled as "king." As a result, the independent states of the eastern provinces that had existed until then disappeared, and Yoritomo came to rule the eastern provinces with the approval of the Imperial Court. Theory (2) considers this period to be the establishment of the shogunate.

Minamoto no Yoshinaka of Kiso, who pursued the Taira clan to Kyoto, came into conflict with Emperor Goshirakawa. In particular, when the Emperor promoted an alliance with Yoritomo, the relationship between the Emperor and Yoshinaka deteriorated, and Yoshinaka eventually imprisoned the Emperor. Yoritomo dispatched his younger brothers, Noriyori and Yoshitsune, to defeat Yoshinaka. Noriyori and Yoshitsune further defeated the Taira clan at Ichinotani and Yashima, and in 1185, annihilated them at Dannoura. Thereafter, Yoritomo and Yoshitsune came into conflict, and the Emperor tried to use Yoshitsune to check Yoritomo, issuing an imperial decree to pursue and attack Yoritomo, but this failed. Conversely, Yoritomo got the Emperor to approve the establishment of shugo and jito in order to pursue and attack Yoshitsune. Theory (3) sees this as the establishment of the shogunate.

Pursued by Yoritomo, Yoshitsune sought refuge with the Fujiwara clan of Oshu, but in 1189 Fujiwara Yasuhira succumbed to Yoritomo's pressure and killed Yoshitsune. Yoritomo then destroyed the Oshu Fujiwara clan and extended his control over the whole country. The following year, 1190, Yoritomo went to Kyoto and was appointed Gon Dainagon and Udaisho by the Cloistered Emperor (Yoritomo eventually resigned from both positions), and his position as Nihonkoku Sotsuihoshi and Sojito, the head of the Shugo and Jito, was confirmed, and he was put in charge of "Shokugo" (military and police affairs of Japan) leading his vassals. Theory (4) sees this as the establishment of the shogunate.

Theory (5) has been around for a long time and needs no further explanation.

The various theories about the establishment of the shogunate are divided by differences in how the true nature of the shogunate is perceived. However, the most traditional theory (5) does not touch on the true nature of the shogunate. Since the word "shogunate" originally meant the tent of a shogun on a campaign, the establishment of the shogunate was seen as the date of Yoritomo's inauguration as Seii Taishogun. It is true that the Ashikaga and Tokugawa clans also established shogunate as Seii Taishogun, but this theory itself is merely a discussion based on the meaning of the word "shogunate." As for the other theories, (3) and (4) consider the time of the establishment of the shogunate from the perspective of shugo and jito, and question the time of the establishment and establishment of the shugo and jito system, while (1) and (2) consider the shogunate as a government in the eastern provinces, and question the time of the establishment of independent eastern states, the official recognition of the eastern provinces' right of rule by the Imperial Court, and the associated disappearance of independent states. The other theories besides (1) consider the time when Yoritomo was given a certain authority by the Imperial Court or appointed to an official position as the indicator of the establishment of the shogunate. Apart from the establishment of an independent state in the eastern part of Japan in (1), the existence of the shogunate was guaranteed by the Imperial Court, and it performed certain national functions under that. (2) concerns the time when the shogunate was first given authority by the Imperial Court, but from the perspective of the shogunate's national functions, (4), when the military and police functions of the shogunate were confirmed by the Imperial Court, is more appropriate. The currently most common theory, (3), focuses on the time when the feudal system was established as a relationship of favor and service mediated by land, when the Kamakura Shogun (the shogun) appointed his vassals as shugo and jito. However, since theories on the time of establishment are essentially theories, it is a mistake to accept one as correct and deny the others. For the time being, we will use the most popular theory, (3), and consider 1185 to be the beginning of the Kamakura period.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

The Age of Plural Dominance

It is a mistake to think that the Imperial Court and the nobility were merely formal entities during the Kamakura period, and that the real power was held by the Shogunate, and to consider the history of the Kamakura Shogunate as the history of the Kamakura period. At least until the mid-Kamakura period, the Imperial Court was still the ruler of the entire nation, and the Shogunate was only in charge of the nation's military and police, with its existence guaranteed by the Imperial Court. The Imperial Court continued to practice cloistered government, which began in 1086 (Otoku 3) during the late Heian period, and continued throughout almost the entire Kamakura period until the end of the Kamakura period in 1321 (Genko 1), when Emperor Go-Uda stopped cloistered government and Emperor Godaigo took direct rule. After the Jokyu War in 1221 (Jokyu 3), a significant portion of the functions of the cloistered government were transferred to the Shogunate, but the principle of the cloistered government continuing and guaranteeing the existence of the Shogunate did not change. Around the time of the establishment of the Insei system, military aristocrats called the Touryo appeared, who led the samurai and took charge of the military and police affairs of the nation, and the Kamakuradono, the head of the Kamakura shogunate, was an extension of this. As the Nihonkoku Sotsuibushi (General of Japanese Commanders), the Kamakuradono led his retainers, who were his guardians of the nation, and the Imperial Court gave him official titles such as Seii Taishogun. The military organization of the Kamakuradono-Gokenin did not simply protect the shogunate, but was responsible for protecting the entire nation, and this is clear from the fact that the important duty of the Gokenin, the Oban-yaku (guard officer), was responsible for guarding the Imperial Court. The structure in which the head of the samurai led his retainers and was in charge of the military and police affairs of the nation, remained essentially unchanged from the Insei period until the Kamakura period, and the establishment of the shogunate simply strengthened and stabilized the status of the samurai.

Not only in terms of the state structure, but also in terms of the social system, the society of the Kamakura period was nothing but a continuation of that which had existed since the late Heian period. The prototype of the manor system, which formed the basis of society in this era, was established in the late Heian period with the formation of manors based on donated land, and was characterized by dual rule between manor lords (Honjo, Ryoke, etc.) and local lords (Geshi, Jito, etc.). This dual rule corresponds to the political form in which aristocrats and samurai stood side by side to constitute the state structure. Just as the state system did not change in essence with the establishment of the shogunate, there was no fundamental change in the manor system either. Even when the shogunate established Jito, the manor system did not disappear, and it was common for the authority and tokubun (income) of the Jito to be inherited from those of their predecessor Geshi.

The Kamakura period, which followed the Insei period, was a time when power was divided into multiple factions. Aristocrats, temples, and shrines ran households independent of public authority, including the right of non-entry into manors, and the Imperial Court could not interfere in their household affairs, nor did the shogunate. On the other hand, samurai, who were local lords, also had independent sovereignty, and were not subject to shogunate interference in disowning their children, punishing their retainers, controlling peasants, or disposing of their private land.

Divisions were also seen in state power itself. In the Imperial Court, there was a division between the Emperor, who was the formal sovereign, and the Chiten no Kimi (Retired Emperor), who held real political power as the Emperor's ancestor and ruled as an innkeeper. In the Shogunate, there was also a division of power between the Kamakura Shogun, the Regent, and the Tokuso (the head of the Hojo clan).

Amidst this pluralistic rule, a tendency towards unification and centralization emerged in the late Kamakura period. The power of the jito (land stewards) grew in manors, eliminating the power of the manorial lords and promoting unified rule. The shogunate concentrated power in the hands of the regents, interfering in the politics of the Imperial Court and intervening in the honshoki (main territories), and strengthening control over the vassals' territories. In response to this, Emperor Go-Daigo also abolished the insei system at the Imperial Court, eliminating the schism between the regent and the Emperor, and then overthrew the shogunate and achieved centralization of power in the hands of the Emperor through the Kenmu Restoration.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Politics

Politics in the early Kamakura period

In 1185 (Bun'ji 1), Yoritomo demanded the establishment of shugo and jito, and recommended the Minister of the Right, Kujo Kanezane, as an internal inspector (a position that inspects documents from the Daijokan before they are presented to the Emperor) in an attempt to curb the dictatorship of the Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa. With Yoritomo's support, Kanezane came into conflict with the Cloistered Emperor, but when the Oshu Fujiwara clan was destroyed and the conflict between Yoritomo and the Cloistered Emperor was alleviated, Kanezane's usefulness to Yoritomo decreased. After the Cloistered Emperor's death in 1192 (Kenkyu 3), Kanezane briefly held real political power, but in 1196 he was ousted by slander from the Minister of the Interior, Minamoto (Tsuchimikado) Michichika, a former aide to the Cloistered Emperor. This was because Kanezane had lost the support of Yoritomo, but Kanezane's downfall also meant that Yoritomo lost his outlet to have a say in Imperial Court politics, and Michichika subsequently wielded power.

In the shogunate, after Yoritomo's death (1199), Yoriie succeeded him as the Shogun of Kamakura, but his mother, Hojo Masako, and Masako's father, Tokimasa, feared the rise of the Hiki clan, Yoriie's maternal relative, and in 1203 (Kennin 3), they destroyed the Hiki clan, deposed Yoriie, and installed his younger brother, Sanetomo, as the Shogun of Kamakura. At the same time, Tokimasa became the regent (mandokoro betto). Thus, regent government was established. Later, his son, Yoshitoki, destroyed the family of Wada Yoshimori, who was the betto of the Samurai-dokoro, in 1213 (Kenpo 1) (Wada War), and became the betto of the Samurai-dokoro as well as the betto of the Mandokoro. Meanwhile, in Kyoto, Michichika died in 1202 and the retired Emperor Gotoba came to power. The retired emperor favored Kujo Yoshitsune (Kanezane's son) and Michiie, father and son, who had been confined during Michichika's time, and sought to reconcile the Imperial Court and the Shogunate. He built a close relationship with Sanetomo and tried to subjugate the shogunate through him. However, the Hojo clan, who held real power in the shogunate, adopted a policy of protecting the rights and interests of the shogunate in order to gain the support of their vassals, which led to conflict with the retired emperor. Sanetomo was torn between the retired emperor and the Hojo regents, causing him great suffering. When Sanetomo was assassinated by his nephew Kugyo in 1219 (Jokyu 1), the shogunate welcomed Kujo Michiie's son Yoritsune as the Shogun of Kamakura (Yoritsune later became Shogun in 1126 and was called Sekke Shogun), but the actual Shogun of Kamakura was Masako, commonly known as the "Nun Shogun." With Sanetomo's death, the retired emperor gave up on compromising with the shogunate and decided to overthrow the shogunate. In 1221, he raised an army, but was defeated (Jokyu War). The shogunate exiled Gotoba and the other three retired emperors, deposed Emperor Chukyo and installed Emperor Gohorikawa, and had Gohorikawa's father, Cloistered Emperor Gotakakura, rule as an inn.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Politics in the mid-Kamakura period

After the Jōkyū War, the shogunate entered a period of stability, and with the death of Masako in 1225 (Karoku 1), regent Hojo Yasutoki switched from dictatorial rule to council rule, establishing a system of collective leadership with two regents (one of whom was a so-called rensho), assisted by a council of more than ten members. In 1232 (Joei 1), the Goseibai Shikimoku (Code of Punishment for Criminal Offenses) was created, setting standards for trials. Meanwhile, the imperial court continued to exercise cloistered rule after the Jōkyū War, but a significant portion of the national functions that had previously been performed by the cloistered rulers were transferred to the shogunate. The shogunate also interfered with the imperial throne, and when Emperor Shijō died in 1242 (Ninji 3), it suppressed the wishes of the nobles and enthroned Emperor Gosaga.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Politics in the late Kamakura period

The shogunate during this period practiced tokuso tyranny, which can be divided into two stages: the first stage in which Hojo Tokiyori and Tokimune were tokuso (heads of the Hojo clan), and the second stage under Sadatoki and Takatoki.

In the first stage, the target of his tyranny was the nobility and temples and shrines, and he intensified his interference in court politics. In 1246 (Kangen 4), Tokiyori drove the former Shogun Yoritsune to Kyoto on the grounds of a conspiracy, and in 1252 (Kencho 4), he also banished his son, Shogun Yoritsune, and welcomed Prince Munetaka (son of the retired Emperor Gosaga) to Kamakura as Miya Shogun, conclusively turning the Kamakura Shogun into a puppet. In 1247 (Hoji 1), he destroyed the powerful Gokenin Miura clan, who supported Yoritsune (the Hoji War), and purged the opponents of Tokuso within the Hojo clan. Thus, Tokuso and his vassals came to hold real political power, and the private position of Tokuso came to take precedence over the official position of regent.

The expulsion of the regent shoguns also had a serious impact on the politics of the Imperial Court. Yoritsune's expulsion led to the downfall of his father, Kujo Michiie, who had also wielded great power as Kanto Moushitsugi, who mediated between the Imperial Court and the military. Thereafter, the shogunate interfered in the succession of regents and even in the cloistered government of Emperor Gosaga. When Gosaga was first elected by the shogunate, it could not yet be said that the shogunate held the power to select the Chiten no Kimi or Emperor, but Gosaga left the selection of his successor Chiten no Kimi to the shogunate, and from then on the shogunate held this power in its hands.

The Mongol invasions also served as an opportunity to strengthen the Tokuso autocratic dictatorship. Since 1268 (Bun'ei 5), the Mongols (Yuan Dynasty) had been asking Japan to submit to them, but the shogunate did not respond, and instead repelled further invasions in 1274 (Bun'ei 11) and 1281 (Kōan 4). Through these Mongol invasions, the shogunate's authority expanded greatly. Until then, the shogunate had not interfered with the governance of the honjo territories, such as aristocrats and temples, but with the Mongol invasion, it gained the authority to requisition annual taxes from the honjo territories in the western provinces as military food and to mobilize non-gokenin (samurai other than shogunal retainers). The shogunate's suppression of the Imperial Court's replies to the Mongol sovereign letters and its arbitrary execution of envoys meant that it had usurped the Imperial Court's diplomatic rights.

Thus, the first stage of the Tokuso autocracy was an autocracy directed at aristocrats, temples and shrines. To achieve this, the shogunate needed the support of the Gokenin, and implemented policies to protect them, such as speeding up trials through the establishment of Hikitsukeshu (1249) and halving the number of guards. However, in the second stage, autocracy was directed at the Gokenin, and as a result, conflict between the shogunate and the Gokenin intensified. The Shimotsuki Incident in 1285, in which Adachi Yasumori, a representative of the Gokenin forces, was destroyed by slander from Taira Yoritsuna, a representative of the Tokuso vassals, became the catalyst for the second stage of the Tokuso autocracy. The Gokenin had strong lordship rights that were not interfered with by the power of the shogunate, but the shogunate gradually began to interfere with their lordship rights, especially their right to dispose of their territories. The Tokuseirei of 1297 (Eijin 5) ordered the free return of Gokenin lands to provide relief to Gokenin who had lost their lands due to the development of the monetary economy and the costs of warfare caused by the Mongol invasion. At the same time, it also prohibited, at least temporarily, the buying, selling, and pawning of Gokenin lands, which was a sign of the Shogunate's strengthened control over Gokenin lands. The Hojo clan also monopolized important Shogunate positions (Hyojoshu, Hikitsukeshu, etc.), accumulated Shugo positions, and controlled hubs for the distribution of goods (ports, etc.), concentrating power in the hands of the Tokuso family and their vassals. In this way, the multiple ruling relationships were unified by the Tokuso, but this was against the interests of aristocrats, temples, shrines, samurai, etc., and anti-shoen and anti-Shogunate villainous actions surfaced in various places, and the Shogunate was weak in its ability to overcome such movements. Corruption also appeared along with the autocracy, and dissatisfaction with the Shogunate grew stronger among all classes.

What united these anti-Shogunate forces was the movement to restore imperial power led by Emperor Godaigo. After Emperor Gosaga, his sons, Emperor Gofukakusa and Emperor Kameyama, ascended to the throne in succession, but after Gosaga's death, a dispute arose over whether Gofukakusa or Kameyama should become the Chiten no Kimi. After that, the Jimyoin lineage of Gofukakusa and the Daikakuji lineage of Kameyama fought each other over the Imperial throne and the position of Chiten no Kimi, lobbying the Shogunate, which also intervened, causing divisions within the two lines. In 1317 (Bunpo 1), at the suggestion of the shogunate, talks were held between the two lines, and as a result it was decided that Emperor Hanazono (Jimyoin line) would abdicate and Emperor Go-Daigo (Daikakuji line) would ascend to the throne (Bunpo Peace Treaty).

Emperor Go-Daigo ascended to the throne and his father, the Cloistered Emperor Go-Uda, began ruling as a cloistered emperor, but it was difficult for Emperor Go-Daigo to place his son on the throne and become the regent himself, which led to growing dissatisfaction with the shogunate. In 1321 (Genko 1), Emperor Go-Daigo ended the cloistered government of Go-Uda, which had lasted for almost 250 years, and established direct rule by the emperor. In 1324 (Shochu 1), plans to overthrow the shogunate were leaked (Shochu Incident), and in 1331 (Genko 1), the plans were leaked again and the emperor was exiled to Oki (Genko Incident), but thanks to the efforts of his son, Imperial Prince Moriyoshi, and Kusunoki Masashige, anti-shogunate samurai rose up in revolts all over the country, and finally in 1333, the shogunate was overthrown by the efforts of Ashikaga Takauji and Nitta Yoshisada. The abolition of the insei system overcame the rift between the regent and the emperor, and the downfall of the shogunate were the result of centralization from the imperial court in response to centralization from the shogunate side (the regent's tyranny), and the emperor's activities cannot be considered a simple restoration or reaction.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Japan in East Asia

In China, the Song dynasty was driven out by the Jin dynasty and the Southern Song dynasty was established in Jiangnan in 1127 during the late Heian period. Genghis Khan (Genghis Khan) and his successors appeared on the Mongolian plateau at the beginning of the 13th century during the early Kamakura period and built a vast empire stretching from the Korean peninsula to Eastern Europe, destroying the Jin dynasty as well. Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan (Kubilai Khan) subjugated the Korean Goryeo dynasty, renamed the country Yuan, and later destroyed the Southern Song dynasty as well. He attacked Japan again in 1274 and 1281, but failed. Both the Yuan and Goryeo dynasties were in decline by the end of the Kamakura period, and were destroyed by the Ming dynasty and the Yi dynasty of Korea in 1368 and 1392, respectively, at the end of the Northern and Southern Courts period.

Since the suspension of missions to China in 894 (Kanpei 6), Japan has had no formal diplomatic relations with China or Korea, and Japanese people were prohibited from traveling overseas. Only a few Song merchants visited Dazaifu and were allowed to trade under the control of the Imperial Court. During this time, while national culture developed, the international outlook of the Japanese narrowed. However, from the late Heian period onwards, smuggling became popular, and the Taira clan in particular made huge profits from Japan-Song trade.

Foreign relations in the Kamakura period were a development of those in the late Heian period. Although formal diplomatic relations were not established, trade became more active, with an increasing number of Song ships arriving, and Japanese ships also travelling to Song. Japan exported raw materials such as gold dust and sulfur, crafts such as lacquerware and folding screens, and swords, and imported textiles, ceramics, Song coins, spices, medicines, and more. Whereas diplomacy during the time of the Japanese envoys to the Tang Dynasty was based on tribute, now trade and religion were at the forefront. South China trade was thriving during the Song Dynasty, and Arabian merchants also visited China. These visitors attracted Chinese merchants to work overseas, bringing South China products such as spices and medicines to Japan. Japan was located at the eastern end of the East Asian trading sphere.

The Yuan Dynasty's great conquests led to active cultural exchange between the East and the West. The Italian Marco Polo's account of his experiences, The Travels of Marco Polo, reported on the Orient to the West, and in it he described Japan as "Zipangu, the Golden Island." Under these circumstances, even the Mongol invasion did not deal a major blow to trade relations surrounding Japan. Trade between Japan and the Yuan Dynasty continued to thrive, and the shogunate even officially authorized the dispatch of trading ships in order to obtain funds for the construction of Kenchoji Temple. In this way, the foundations were being laid for active trade between Japan and the Ming Dynasty during the Muromachi period.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Economy and Society

Manor system

The foundation of society in the Kamakura period was the manor system, characterized by the dual rule of manor lords and local lords. Farmers were divided into classes such as myoshu, sakunin, and genin (subordinates), and were subject to taxes such as annual tribute, public duties, and labor services, which the myoshu were responsible for. In addition to paying taxes to the manor lord and kokushi, sakunin also paid rent to the local lords and myoshu, while genin were subordinate to the local lords and myoshu, and were used to cultivate land directly managed by them. Under the manor system, various rights, both lordly and peasant, were exercised over the same land, and these were expressed as "positions" such as honjo shiki, ryoke shiki, ryosho shiki, geshi shiki, jito shiki, myoshu shiki, and saku shiki, and exclusive land ownership did not exist. Even when jito were appointed, their authority and profits were inherited from their predecessors, so the manor lord should not have suffered a blow, but the manor lord did not have the right to appoint or dismiss the jito, and the jito set up manors in rural areas, directly managed their land, seized taxes, strengthened their control over the peasants, and advanced the invasion of the manors. The manorial lords entrusted the management of the land to the Jito, and took measures such as Jitouke, which ensured a fixed amount of annual tax, and Shitajichubun, which gave half of the land to the Jito and allowed the manorial lords and Jito to manage the land without interfering with each other. In any case, the dual rule of the manorial lords and local lords tended to become unified.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Industrial development

Agricultural production improved greatly in the mid- to late Kamakura period. The complex ruling relationships of manors hindered the smooth use of irrigation water, but the use of waterwheels and irrigation ponds also became widespread. These were led by headman and jito, but many peasants also participated. Fertilizers such as karishiki (seedlings) and wood ash were also used, and the use of cattle and horses for cultivation became more common. Improvements in agricultural techniques improved agricultural production, and in productive areas double cropping of rice and wheat became common. The development of agricultural production improved the status of peasants, leading to the independence of servants, the growth of farmers into headman, and the transformation of headman into feudal lords, shaking the foundations of the manor system.

In rural areas, some farmers provided handicraft products to the feudal lords while working, or offered labor for handicrafts. Highly skilled craftsmen formed groups under the protection of aristocrats and temples and shrines, but as agricultural production developed, specialized craftsmen appeared in rural areas and began to meet the needs of ordinary people. Blacksmiths and casters in particular were active, providing agricultural tools and daily necessities to the public. As agriculture and handicrafts developed, regular markets were held in the centers of manors and important transportation locations, where local lords and village headmen exchanged rice tax for money or bartered goods. Products from the center were brought to the provinces by traveling merchants. In cities, permanent retail stores appeared, and the number of stores selling specialized products also increased. Commercial areas called "machi" were born in Kyoto and Kamakura. The transportation of goods also gradually developed, and specialized transporters such as bashaku (horse hire) and shashaku (car hire) appeared. Port facilities were developed by Tokuso vassals and Ritsu sect priests, and toimaru developed on rivers such as the Yodo River and at ports. At first, they handled transport, storage and consignment sales for the manor lords, but gradually they became independent transport intermediaries, and began to handle general goods. As trade with Song led to the widespread circulation of Song coins and the use of currency increased, taxes were often converted into coins in local markets and sent to the manor lords in the central area, and currency exchange began as a method of payment. Financial businesses known as kashiage also appeared, and tanomoshi (mujin) was practiced as a form of private mutual aid financing.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

culture

Overview

During the Kamakura period, especially in the first half, the cultural standard of the samurai was low, while aristocratic culture still thrived. The rise of the samurai brought about a revolution in aristocratic culture, breathing in the willful and resolute samurai spirit into the emotional and elegant aristocratic culture. The samurai also absorbed aristocratic culture and raised their cultural standard. Temples were powerful, and Buddhism occupied a large position. In particular, with the rise of New Buddhism, Buddhism penetrated into the lives of ordinary people. The import of Song and Yuan culture, including Zen Buddhism, through negotiations with China had a major impact on the improvement of samurai culture, centered around the upper echelons of the shogunate. Kamakura culture developed in many areas, but here I will limit myself to pointing out the most important points.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Restoration of Todaiji Temple and Art

The reconstruction of Todaiji Temple, burned by the Taira clan in 1180 (Jisho 4), was a national cultural project. It restored the prestige of the nation that had been lost in the war, and also responded to the simple devotion of the people, and the method was to use the private monk Chogen as Kanjinshiki, and to collect donations from believers widely and to raise the costs for the reconstruction. Minamoto no Yoritomo was an enthusiastic supporter, showing his position as the military and police of the nation. The reconstruction of Todaiji Temple was also the starting point for Kamakura art. Shigegen appointed Nara Buddhist sculptors with a spectacular style suitable for the era of samurai, and many masterpieces were created by Unkei and Kaikei. They also adopted Tenpyo sculptures and Song styles, creating new styles. Just as the Song Dynasty Sin Chen He Casted the Great Buddha and adopted the Song Dynasty's architectural style, the Song Dynasty, the great Buddha, was adopted, and the Song Dynasty's influence was greatly influenced. Unlike the predecessor culture, which was established as a national culture exclusively for aristocrats, the scale of which included the common people, adopted Chinese culture, and tried to return to the ancient Tenpyo era after the Heian period was a distinctive feature of the reconstruction of Todaiji Temple.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

The Genpei War and Literature and History

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. He accepts the establishment of the shogunate as "reason," and makes it a mistake to try to overthrow the shogunate by force, and makes it a political ideal for court nobles and samurai to cooperate to help the emperor. Jien abandons his position of observing and glorifying history, like a "mirror," and is in a practical position to seek a way of life in a turbulent world. Emperor Gotoba, who led the efforts to overcome internal conflicts in aristocratic society and conflicts between civil and military affairs, became the center of the compilation of the Shinkokin Wakashu (Hensan). It aims to return to Engi (the era of the Kokin Wakashu), the origin of aristocratic culture, and corresponds to the political policy of the Emperor, but the idealistic passion of the Emperor and the tensions of poets living in a turbulent world have broken the stagnation of the poets.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Kamakura Buddhism

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. He introduced Soto Zen from Song, recommended that he reject the power and achieve enlightenment on his own through zazen.

In response to the rise of the new Buddhism, reflections were born mainly in Nanto Buddhism, such as the Minister of Justice, Kegon, and Ritsu, and reforms of doctrines were attempted to be tailored to the times. As seen in the reconstruction of Todaiji Temple and the revival of Tenpyo sculpture, the return to Nara culture was a characteristic of Kamakura culture. In contrast, the precepts of the New Nembutsu Buddhism were respected in Nanto Buddhism. The Hoso sect and Kegon sect were revived by Jokei (Gedatsu), Koben (Myoe), who criticized Honen, and Shunjo was mainly in Kyoto, mainly in Sennyuji, and Eison was mainly in Saidaiji, and Nara, and he worked to revive the Ritsu.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Samurai culture

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. Many monks (Soryo) from samurai, including Honen, Takaben, and Ippen.

While the shogunate strives to maintain the spirit of robust samurai, he actively instilled aristocratic culture and created a culture of samurai's own unique samurai. The Goseibai Shikimoku, established by Hojo Yasutoki, was the first samurai law code, and was created based on the "music of warriors."

The dictatorship of Hojo Tokiyori was established, and the political status of the shogunate improved, and the leaders of the shogunate became aware of the rulers, and interest in culture increased, and the samurai culture significantly improved. Tokiyori invited Rankei Doryu of Song, and built Kencho-ji Temple, and his son Tokisou sect invited Mugaku Sogen to build Engakuji Temple, and the shogunate gave protection to Rinzai Zen. The shogunate was not merely interested in the religion of Zen, but instead accepted the various Song Yuan cultures associated with Zen, and was trying to create a classic samurai culture in opposition to court nobles. In addition to Zen, Zen sect architecture, chinsou (portraits of Zen Buddhism), ink painting, and Confucianism have also been passed down. The Jodo sect was also introduced to the Kanto region, and the Kamakura Daibutsu (a statue of Amida) was created by Nembutsu monks, but the shogunate assisted them and sent trade ships to obtain the funds for construction. In the Ritsu sect, Eison's disciple Ninsho, who was propagated in Kamakura for 40 years, relegated to the Hojo clan, and worked for social work. These sects were accompanied by excellent civil engineering techniques, and were also useful for the shogunate in this regard. The Nembutsu monks built the Great Buddha, built the Waga Ejima, and the Ritsu sect built the bridge and created the road. When Waga Ejima was renovated and the Ofuna was able to enter Kamakura, Kamakura and Kyushu were connected by a waterway, where Kamakura was ahead of Kyoto in importing Chinese culture.

The history of the shogunate, Azuma Kagami, was also compiled, and Kanazawa Mitoki built the Kanazawa Bunko and collected Japanese and Chinese books, making many samurai interested in academic and literature.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Thoughts of worship of gods

Due to the victory over the invasion of the Mongolia, the idea of the divine nation became popular in the late Kamakura period. The Ise Shrine, especially the priests of the Ise Shrine (Gekuu), (Toyoke Daijingu), were formed, and the belief in the Jingi, which had not previously been doctrine, began to have theory here. In addition, the picture scroll "Kasuga Gongen Reigenki," created with the full strength of the Fujiwara clan, described the divine power of Kasuga Shrine, the deity of the Fujiwara clan. Research into the Nihon Shoki, particularly the Jindai no Maki, was also carried out, and it was culminated in Urabe Kanekata's Shaku Nihongi.

The divine ideology preaches the superiority of God over Buddha, contrary to the traditional theory of Honjisuijaku. It also has a political nature that is continually linked to the imperial court's efforts to restore imperial authority, such as emphasizing worship of gods against the tendency to disworth the gods of gods seen in new Nembutsu Buddhism, and advocating that divine powers should be countered by the shogunate and villains.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Customs and Lifestyle

Clothing

The kariginu and suikan worn by lower-level officials during the Heian period became formal wear for samurai, and samurai wore a straight vertical dress. Upper peasants and influential merchants also wore a straight vertical dress, while ordinary people used kukuribakama for kosode. Women of powerful clans wore a kukuribakama for kosode, and traditionally kinagata. Common women usually wear folds (koshimo) (koshimo) or kosode for kosode. For dressings, eboshi were generally used, but some customs were not worn. Hairstyles were normal for kosode, but there were also customs that did not wear anything. Hairstyles were normal for kosode, but they vary depending on their status. Women wore Ichimegasa and wore garments. In the past, ordinary people who were barefoot began to use foot sandals and sandals. Clothes, headgears, and hairstyles differed depending on their status, and they acted as a type of identity sign.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

food

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. When traveling, preserved foods such as grilled rice, sardines, dried fish, and seaweed were used.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Housing

The nobles lived in houses that had been built in the olden-old houses of the shinden (sinden-making) buildings. The samurai residences were built on high ground and on key areas for transportation, and were surrounded by moats, earthen ramparts, and hedges, and were called doi. The main hall of the samurai, the master, was equipped with the facilities necessary for the life of the samurai, such as the Toozamurai, packed by the Keigo samurai, as well as stables and yagura. The roof was thatched roof and had a wooden roof, and only some tatami mats were laid out in the main hall. Machiya in Kyoto and Kamakura have many thatched roofs with gables, with interiors being spaced between the boards, and ordinary farmers' houses being excavated huts, rice husks and straw were laid on the dirt floor, and groves (or rather) were laid on top, and the roof was thatched and thatched roofs.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

Entertainment, entertainment, and popular beliefs

The urban festivals were added to a level of brilliance. In the villages, a ritual of the zas centered around the masters of the kingdom, and more villagers joined in, and urban festivals were accepted into rural areas. Those who formed the mainstream of the entertainment industry were those who were considered low in status. Biwa Hoshi spoke about kanji (the Heike Monogatari) and other words in conjunction with the biwa. Shirabiyoshi performed ka-dances. In the late Kamakura period, kusemai (kusemai) occurred within this period, which influenced the formation of Noh music. Dengaku and Sarugaku were also popular and were performed, and later developed into Noh and Kyogen.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.

[Masayoshi Kamiyokote]

"Miura Shuyuki, "A Study of Japanese History News" (1982, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Ishii Susumu, "Japan's History 7: Kamakura Shogunate" (1965, Chuokoronsha)" ▽ "Kuroda Toshio, "Japan's History 8: Mongolian Invasion" (1965, Chuokoronsha)" ▽ "Kamiyokote Masataka, "Study of Political History of Medieval Japan" (1970, Hanawa Shobo)" ▽ "Kuroda Toshio et al., "Iwanami Lectures of Japanese History 5: Iwanami History 5: Iwanami Shogunate" (1975, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Oyama Kyohei, "Japan's History 9: Kamakura Shogunate" (1974, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Amino Yoshihiko, "Japan's History 10: Mongolian Invasion" (1974, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Kamiyokote Masataka, "Illustrated History of Japanese Culture 5: Kamakura" (1979, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Sato Shinichi, "Medieval Country in Japan" (1983, Iwanami Shoten)"

Kamakura city in the Kamakura period
©Shogakukan ">

Kamakura city in the Kamakura period

"Goseisai-style"
Published in the Edo period. Published in 1607 (Kecho 12) at the National Diet Library >

"Goseisai-style"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

鎌倉時代というのは、政権の所在地による時代称呼の一つである。1885年（明治18）田口卯吉(うきち)が『日本開化之性質』で初めてこの称を用いた。

　この時代に政権が鎌倉幕府にあったとはかならずしもいいきれないが、鎌倉に幕府が置かれた時代を鎌倉時代といっている。

［上横手雅敬］

時代区分と概観

幕府の成立時期に関する諸説

鎌倉時代の終わりが幕府の滅亡した1333年（元弘3・正慶2）であることに異論はないが、幕府の成立時期については次の諸説があり、したがって鎌倉時代の始期についても、種々の見解が可能である。

(1)1180年（治承4）説　治承4年10～12月における東国独立国家の成立、とくに12月、源頼朝(みなもとのよりとも)の住居が完成し、頼朝がここに移ったとき。

(2)1183年（寿永2）説　寿永(じゅえい)二年十月宣旨(せんじ)によって、頼朝が東国における国衙在庁(こくがざいちょう)指揮権を認められたとき。

(3)1185年（文治1）説　頼朝が守護(しゅご)・地頭(じとう)の補任(ぶにん)を勅許されたとき。

(4)1190年（建久1）説　頼朝が朝廷によって日本国総追捕使(そうついぶし)・総地頭の地位を確認されたとき。

(5)1192年（建久3）説　頼朝が朝廷から征夷(せいい)大将軍に任命されたとき。

　次にこれらの時点に注目しつつ、幕府の成立過程を述べる。

　1180年8月、頼朝は伊豆で平氏打倒の兵をあげた。最初は相模(さがみ)の石橋山の戦いで敗れたが、やがて勢力を回復して鎌倉に入り、富士川の戦いで平氏の追討軍を破った。頼朝は上洛(じょうらく)することなく、そのまま鎌倉で東国経営を進め、御家人(ごけにん)支配のために侍所(さむらいどころ)を置き、12月には頼朝の住居も完成、移住した。建築的にいえば頼朝の住居こそ幕府であるが、新邸移転の儀式に際し、御家人たちは頼朝を「鎌倉の主」に推したと『吾妻鏡(あづまかがみ)』にみえる。当時頼朝は以仁王(もちひとおう)の令旨(りょうじ)を東国支配の根拠としていたが、それには平氏に支持された高倉(たかくら)上皇・安徳(あんとく)天皇の朝廷を倒して即位する意志が述べられていた。したがって以仁王の令旨に基づく頼朝の政権は、単に東国軍事政権というよりも、京都の朝廷とは共存できない独立国家であり、新邸移住の儀式は、独立国家の国王戴冠式(たいかんしき)を意味している。(1)の説はこのときをもって幕府が成立したとみるものである。

　頼朝の挙兵の動機は、以仁王の令旨を得たことのほかに、文覚(もんがく)を介して平氏打倒を命ずる後白河(ごしらかわ)法皇の密旨を得たことにもあった。したがって1183年、平氏が都落ちし、法皇が政権を回復すると、法皇と頼朝の提携は急速に進み、同年10月法皇は、寿永二年十月宣旨によって、これまで頼朝が「国王」として支配してきた東国における国衙在庁指揮権を認めるという形で、その支配を公認した。その結果、これまでの東国独立国家は消滅し、頼朝は朝廷の承認下に東国を支配することになった。この時期を幕府の成立とするのが(2)の説である。

　平氏を追って上洛した木曽(きそ)の源義仲(よしなか)は、後白河法皇と対立した。とくに法皇が頼朝との提携を進めると、法皇と義仲との関係は険悪化し、ついに義仲は法皇を幽閉した。頼朝は弟の範頼(のりより)・義経(よしつね)を派遣して義仲を討たせた。範頼・義経はさらに一ノ谷(いちのたに)、屋島(やしま)で平氏を討ち、1185年、壇ノ浦(だんのうら)で平氏を滅ぼした。その後、頼朝と義経とは対立し、法皇も義経を利用して頼朝を牽制(けんせい)しようとし、頼朝追討の宣旨を義経に与えたが失敗した。逆に頼朝は義経追討のために、守護・地頭を置くことを法皇に承認させた。これを幕府の成立とみるのが(3)の説である。

　頼朝に追われた義経は奥州(おうしゅう)藤原氏を頼ったが、1189年、藤原泰衡(やすひら)は頼朝の圧力に屈して義経を討った。頼朝はさらに奥州藤原氏を滅ぼし、全国に支配を及ぼした。翌1190年、頼朝は上洛し、法皇から権大納言(ごんだいなごん)・右大将に任ぜられるとともに（頼朝はやがてこの両職を辞任したが）、守護・地頭の元締めとしての日本国総追捕使・総地頭の地位を確認され、御家人を率いて「諸国守護」（日本国の軍事・警察）を担当することになった。これを幕府の成立とみるのが(4)の説である。

　(5)の説は古くから行われており、改めて説明するまでもない。

　幕府の成立について諸説が分かれるのは、幕府の本質をどうとらえるかの差異によるものである。しかしもっとも伝統的な学説である(5)だけは、幕府の本質に触れていない。すなわち「幕府」ということばが本来出征中の将軍の幕営（テント）を意味するところから、頼朝の征夷大将軍就任を幕府の成立とみたのである。足利(あしかが)氏や徳川氏も、征夷大将軍として幕府を開いたのは確かであるが、この説そのものは「幕府」の語義からの論議にすぎない。それ以外の説では、(3)(4)が守護・地頭の面から幕府の成立時期を考え、守護・地頭制の成立・確立の時期を問題にしているのに対し、(1)(2)では幕府を東国政権としてとらえ、東国独立国家の成立、朝廷による東国支配権公認と、それに伴う独立国家の消滅の時期が問題になっている。また(1)以外の諸説は、頼朝が朝廷から一定の権限を与えられたり、官職に任命されたことを幕府成立の指標としている。(1)の東国独立国家の成立は別として、幕府は朝廷によって存在を保障され、その下で一定の国家的機能を果たしているのである。(2)は幕府が朝廷から初めて権限を与えられた時期を問題にしているが、幕府の国家的機能という視点にたてば、幕府の軍事・警察機能が朝廷によって確認された(4)が妥当であろう。現在もっとも一般に行われている(3)の説は、鎌倉殿（将軍）が御家人を守護・地頭に任ずることによって、土地を媒介とする御恩(ごおん)・奉公(ほうこう)の関係としての封建制が成立した時期を取り上げたものである。ただ成立時期論が本質論である以上、どれか一つを正しいとして、他を否定するのは誤りである。ここでは、いちおう、もっともポピュラーな(3)によって、1185年を鎌倉時代の始期としておく。

［上横手雅敬］

多元的支配の時代

鎌倉時代には朝廷や貴族は形式的存在にすぎず、実権は幕府が握っていたと考え、鎌倉幕府史＝鎌倉時代史とみるのは誤りである。少なくとも鎌倉中期までは、国家全体の支配者は依然として朝廷であり、幕府は朝廷によって存在を保障され、国家の軍事・警察を担当していたにすぎなかった。朝廷では平安後期、1086年（応徳3）に始まる院政が引き続き行われ、鎌倉末期、1321年（元亨1）後宇多(ごうだ)法皇が院政を停止し、後醍醐(ごだいご)天皇の親政が実現するまで、鎌倉時代のほぼ全体を通じて継続した。1221年（承久3）の承久(じょうきゅう)の乱後は、院政の機能の相当部分は幕府に移ったが、それでも院政が継続し、幕府の存在を保障するという原則は変わらなかった。院政成立のころから、武家の棟梁(とうりょう)という軍事貴族が登場し、武士を率いて国家の軍事・警察を担当するようになったが、鎌倉幕府の首長である鎌倉殿は、その発展したものである。鎌倉殿は日本国総追捕使として、従者である御家人を率い、国家を守護する機能を担ったが、朝廷は鎌倉殿に征夷大将軍などの官職を与えた。鎌倉殿―御家人の軍事組織は、単に幕府だけを守るのではなく、国家全体の守護にあたるのであり、このことは御家人の重要な義務である大番役(おおばんやく)が、朝廷の警固を任としていることからも明らかである。武士の首長が従者たる武士を率い、国家的軍事・警察にあずかる構造は、院政期以来、鎌倉時代になっても本質的に変化はなく、ただ幕府の成立によって、武士の地位が強固なものとして安定したにすぎない。

　国家機構ばかりか、社会体制においても、鎌倉時代の社会は、平安後期以来の継続にほかならない。この時代の社会の基礎をなす荘園(しょうえん)制の原型は、平安後期、寄進地系荘園の形成によって築かれたもので、荘園領主（本所(ほんじょ)、領家(りょうけ)など）、在地領主（下司(げし)、地頭など）の二元支配を特色としていた。この二元支配は、貴族と武士が並んで国家機構を構成する政治形態と照応している。幕府の成立によって国家体制が本質的に変化しなかったのと同様、荘園体制にも基本的な変化は生じなかった。幕府が地頭を設置しても、荘園制は消滅しなかったし、地頭の権限や得分(とくぶん)（収入）は、前任の下司のそれを踏襲するのが普通だったのである。

　院政期に続く鎌倉時代は、権力が多元的に分裂した時代である。貴族や寺社は荘園の不入権をはじめとして、公権力から独立した家政を行っており、朝廷もその家政の内部には干渉できず、幕府もまた介入しなかった。一方、在地領主たる武士も独立した領主権をもっており、子供を勘当したり、郎党を制裁したり、農民を支配したり、私領を処分したりすることには、幕府の干渉を受けなかった。

　分裂は国家権力自体にもみられた。朝廷では、形式的主権者である天皇と、天皇の父祖として政治の実権を握り院政を行う治天の君(ちてんのきみ)（上皇）との分裂である。幕府でも、鎌倉殿、執権、得宗(とくそう)（北条氏の家督）の間に権力の分裂がみられた。

　このような多元的支配のなかで、鎌倉後期になると、一元化、集権化の傾向が現れる。荘園では地頭の勢力が強まり、荘園領主の権力を排して一円支配化を進めた。幕府は得宗に権力を集中し、朝廷の政治への干渉、本所領への介入を進め、御家人領に対する統制を強めた。これに対して朝廷でも、後醍醐天皇が院政を廃止し、治天の君と天皇との分裂を解消し、さらに幕府を倒し、建武(けんむ)新政によって天皇への集権を実現させた。

［上横手雅敬］

政治

鎌倉前期の政治

1185年（文治1）頼朝は守護・地頭設置を要求するとともに、右大臣九条兼実(くじょうかねざね)を内覧（太政官(だいじょうかん)の文書を天皇に奏聞する以前に内見する職）に推薦し、後白河(ごしらかわ)法皇の独裁を抑えようとした。頼朝の支援を受けて兼実は法皇と対立したが、奥州(おうしゅう)藤原氏が滅び、頼朝と法皇との対立が緩和されると、頼朝にとって兼実の利用価値は減じた。1192年（建久3）法皇の死後、兼実は一時政治の実権を握ったが、1196年には、法皇の旧側近であった内大臣源（土御門(つちみかど)）通親(みちちか)の讒言(ざんげん)にあい失脚した。これは兼実が頼朝の支持を失ったためであるが、兼実の失脚によって、頼朝も朝廷の政治に発言する窓口を失う結果となり、その後は通親が権勢を振るった。

　幕府では頼朝の死（1199）後、頼家(よりいえ)が鎌倉殿を継いだが、その母北条政子(まさこ)、政子の父時政(ときまさ)は、頼家の外戚(がいせき)である比企(ひき)氏の台頭を恐れ、1203年（建仁3）比企氏を滅ぼし、頼家を退け、その弟実朝(さねとも)を鎌倉殿にたて、同時に時政は執権（政所別当(まんどころべっとう)）となった。ここに執権政治が成立した。さらに、のち子息義時(よしとき)は1213年（建保1）侍所(さむらいどころ)別当の和田義盛(よしもり)一族を滅ぼし（和田合戦）、政所別当とともに侍所の別当をも兼帯した。一方、京都では1202年に通親が没し、後鳥羽(ごとば)上皇が権力を握った。上皇は通親時代に逼塞(ひっそく)していた九条良経(よしつね)（兼実の子）・道家(みちいえ)父子を重用するとともに、公武融和を図り、実朝との関係を密にし、彼を介して幕府を従えようとした。しかし幕府の実権を握る北条氏は、御家人の支持を得るため、御家人権益擁護の方針をとって上皇と対立し、実朝は上皇と北条執権との板挟みとなって苦悩した。1219年（承久1）実朝が甥(おい)の公暁(くぎょう)に暗殺されると、幕府は九条道家の子の頼経(よりつね)を鎌倉殿に迎えた（頼経はのち1126年に将軍となり、摂家(せっけ)将軍とよばれた）が、実質的な鎌倉殿は政子であり、俗に「尼将軍」とよばれた。実朝の死によって、幕府との妥協を断念した上皇は、討幕を決意し、1221年に挙兵したが大敗した（承久(じょうきゅう)の乱）。幕府は後鳥羽以下三上皇を流し、仲恭(ちゅうきょう)天皇を廃して後堀河(ごほりかわ)天皇をたて、後堀河の父後高倉(ごたかくら)法皇に院政を行わせた。

［上横手雅敬］

鎌倉中期の政治

承久の乱後、幕府は安定期を迎え、1225年（嘉禄1）の政子の死を契機に、執権北条泰時(やすとき)は独裁政治から合議政治への転換を行い、執権を2名（うち1名がいわゆる連署）とし、10余名の評定衆(ひょうじょうしゅう)がこれを助ける集団指導方式をとった。1232年（貞永1）には『御成敗式目(ごせいばいしきもく)』がつくられ、裁判の基準が定められた。一方、承久の乱後も、朝廷では引き続き院政が行われたが、従来院政が果たしてきた国家的機能の相当の部分は幕府に移った。幕府は皇位にも干渉し、1242年（仁治3）四条(しじょう)天皇が没すると、貴族たちの意向を抑えて、後嵯峨(ごさが)天皇を即位させた。

［上横手雅敬］

鎌倉後期の政治

この時期の幕府では得宗(とくそう)専制政治が行われたが、それは北条時頼(ときより)・時宗(ときむね)が得宗（北条氏の家督）であった第一段階と、貞時(さだとき)・高時(たかとき)の第二段階とに分かれる。

　第一段階では、専制の対象は貴族・寺社に向けられ、公家(くげ)政治に対する干渉が強められた。時頼は陰謀を理由に、1246年（寛元4）には前将軍頼経を京都に追い、1252年（建長4）にはその子の将軍頼嗣(よりつぐ)をも追放し、新たに宗尊(むねたか)親王（後嵯峨上皇の皇子）を宮将軍として鎌倉に迎え、鎌倉殿の傀儡(かいらい)化を決定的なものとした。また1247年（宝治1）には頼経の支持者であった有力御家人三浦氏を滅ぼし（宝治(ほうじ)合戦）、また北条一門中での得宗への敵対者を粛清するなど、得宗とその被官（家臣）が政治の実権を握るようになり、公的な執権よりも私的な得宗の地位が優先するに至った。

　摂家将軍の追放は、朝廷の政治にも深刻な影響を及ぼした。頼経の追放によって、その父として、さらに公武を媒介する関東申次(もうしつぎ)として権勢を振るっていた九条道家は失脚した。その後、幕府は摂関の交代や、さらには後嵯峨上皇の院政にまで干渉を加えた。先に後嵯峨が幕府に推戴(すいたい)された際は、なお幕府が治天の君や天皇の選定権を握っていたとはいえなかったが、後嵯峨は自分のあとの治天の君の選定を幕府に一任し、この後は幕府がこの権限を掌握した。

　蒙古(もうこ)襲来も得宗専制強化の契機となった。蒙古（元）は1268年（文永5）以来、日本に服属を求めてきたが、幕府はこれに応ぜず、1274年（文永11）、1281年（弘安4）の再度にわたる襲来を退けた。この蒙古襲来を通じて、幕府の権限は大いに拡大した。従来幕府は貴族・社寺など本所の支配には干渉しなかったが、蒙古襲来にあたっては、西国の本所領の年貢などを兵粮米(ひょうろうまい)として徴発したり、御家人以外の武士である非御家人にも動員を加えたりする権限を獲得した。蒙古の国書に対する朝廷の回答を握りつぶしたり、かってに使者を斬(き)ったりしたのは、朝廷の外交権を幕府が奪ったことを意味している。

　このように得宗専制の第一段階は、貴族・寺社を対象とする専制であった。幕府はそのためには御家人の支持を得る必要があり、引付衆(ひきつけしゅう)の設置（1249）による裁判の迅速化、大番役の半減など、御家人保護の政策をとっていた。しかし第二段階では専制は御家人に向けられ、その結果、幕府と御家人との対立が強まった。1285年、御家人勢力を代表する安達泰盛(あだちやすもり)が、得宗被官の代表である平頼綱(よりつな)の讒言(ざんげん)によって滅ぼされた霜月(しもつき)騒動は、得宗専制が第二段階を迎える契機となった。御家人は幕府権力に干渉されない強い領主権をもっていたが、幕府はしだいにその領主権、とくに所領の処分権に干渉を加えるようになった。1297年（永仁5）の徳政令は、貨幣経済の進展、蒙古襲来の戦費などによって困窮し、所領を失った御家人を救済するため、御家人領の無償取り戻しを命じたものであるが、同時に、一時的にせよ御家人領の売買・質入れをいっさい禁じたものであり、御家人領に対する幕府の統制強化の現れであった。また北条一門による幕府要職の独占（評定衆・引付衆など）、守護職の集積、物資流通の拠点（港湾など）の支配も進み、得宗家とその被官に権力が集中された。こうして多元的な支配関係が得宗によって一元化されていったが、それは貴族・寺社・武士などの利益に反する面があり、反荘園的、反幕府的な悪党的行動も各地で表面化し、このような動きを克服するには幕府は弱体であった。専制に伴う腐敗も現れ、諸階層において幕府への不満がますます強まった。

　これらの反幕府勢力を結集したのは、後醍醐(ごだいご)天皇による皇権回復の動きであった。後嵯峨天皇ののち、その皇子後深草(ごふかくさ)・亀山(かめやま)両天皇が相次いで即位したが、後嵯峨の没後、後深草・亀山のいずれを治天の君とするかについて争いが起こり、その後、後深草系の持明院(じみょういん)統と亀山系の大覚寺(だいかくじ)統とは、互いに皇位や治天の君の地位を争って幕府に働きかけ、幕府もこれに介入し、両統内部にも分裂が生じた。1317年（文保1）幕府の提案で両統間に話し合いがもたれ、その結果花園(はなぞの)天皇（持明院統）が退位し、後醍醐天皇（大覚寺統）が即位することなどが決められた（文保(ぶんぽう)の和談）。

　こうして後醍醐天皇が即位し、父の後宇多(ごうだ)法皇が院政を始めたが、後醍醐がその皇子を即位させ、自ら治天の君となることは困難であり、幕府への不満を強めた。後醍醐は1321年（元亨1）後宇多院政を止め、ほぼ250年にわたった院政を廃し、天皇親政を実現させた。1324年（正中1）倒幕の計画が漏れ（正中(しょうちゅう)の変）、1331年（元弘1）には再度の計画も漏れて天皇は隠岐(おき)に流された（元弘(げんこう)の変）が、皇子の護良(もりよし)親王や楠木正成(くすのきまさしげ)の活躍で、反幕の武士が各地に蜂起(ほうき)し、ついに1333年足利尊氏(あしかがたかうじ)や新田義貞(にったよしさだ)らの活躍で、幕府は滅んだ。院政廃止によって治天の君と天皇との分裂を克服し、さらに幕府を滅ぼしたことは、幕府側からの集権化（得宗専制）に対する朝廷側からの集権化であって、天皇の事業は、単なる復古、反動とはいえない。

［上横手雅敬］

東アジアにおける日本

　中国で宋(そう)が金(きん)に追われ、江南に南宋の王朝を建てたのは、平安後期の1127年であった。鎌倉前期、13世紀の初めにモンゴル高原に現れたチンギス・ハン（成吉思汗）とその後継者は、朝鮮半島から東ヨーロッパにわたる大帝国を建設し、金をも滅ぼした。チンギス・ハンの孫のフビライ（忽必烈）は、朝鮮の高麗(こうらい)を従え、国号を元(げん)と改め、のちには南宋をも滅ぼした。彼は1274年、1281年の再度、日本を襲ったが失敗した。鎌倉末期には元、高麗ともに衰え、南北朝時代の終わりの1368年、1392年には、それぞれ明(みん)、李氏(りし)朝鮮によって滅ぼされた。

　894年（寛平6）の遣唐使(けんとうし)停止以来、日本は中国・朝鮮と正式の国交をもたず、日本人の海外渡航を禁じており、わずかに宋の商人が大宰府(だざいふ)を訪れ、朝廷の管理下に貿易を許されるにすぎなかった。この間、国風(こくふう)文化が発達した反面、日本人の国際的視野は狭まった。しかし平安後期以来、密貿易が盛んになり、とくに平氏は日宋貿易で巨利を博した。

　鎌倉時代の対外関係は、平安後期のそれの発展である。正式の国交は開かれなかったが、貿易はいっそう盛んになり、宋船の渡来も増え、日本船も渡宋した。日本からは砂金・硫黄(いおう)などの原料品、蒔絵(まきえ)・屏風(びょうぶ)などの工芸品、刀剣などを輸出し、織物、陶磁器、宋銭、香料、薬品などを輸入した。遣唐使時代の外交が朝貢であったのに対し、いまや貿易と宗教が中心となった。宋代には南海貿易が盛んで、中国にはアラビア商人も訪れたが、これに誘われた中国商人が海外に活動し、日本にも香薬など南海の産物をもたらした。日本は東アジア通商圏の東端に位置していたのである。

　元の大征服は、東西文化の交流を盛んにした。イタリアのマルコ・ポーロの体験記『東方見聞録』は、東洋事情を西洋に伝えたが、そのなかで日本のことを「黄金の島ジパング」と紹介している。こういう状況下では、蒙古(もうこ)襲来も、日本をめぐる通商関係に大きな打撃を与えなかった。その後も日元貿易は盛んであり、幕府も建長寺(けんちょうじ)造営費を得るため、貿易船の派遣を公認していた。こうして、室町時代に日明貿易が活発に行われる基礎が築かれつつあった。

［上横手雅敬］

経済・社会

荘園体制

鎌倉時代の社会の基盤は荘園体制であり、荘園領主、在地領主の二元支配を特色とする。農民には名主(みょうしゅ)、作人(さくにん)、下人(げにん)（所従(しょじゅう)）などの階層があり、年貢、公事(くじ)、夫役(ぶやく)などの税が課せられ、名主はその負担責任者であった。作人は荘園領主や国司(こくし)に対し租税を負担するほか、小作料としての加地子(かじし)を在地領主や名主に納め、下人は在地領主、名主などに隷属し、彼らの直営地の耕作に駆使された。荘園制では、同一の土地に対し、領主的、農民的な多様の権利が行使され、それらは本所職、領家職、領所(あずかりどころ)職、下司(げし)職、地頭職、名主職、作職などの「職」として表現され、排他的な土地所有は存在しなかった。地頭が置かれても、その権限や得分(とくぶん)は前任者のものを継承したから、荘園領主は打撃を被らないはずであったが、荘園領主は地頭の任免権をもたなかったし、地頭は農村に館を構え、所領を直接経営し、年貢を押領(おうりょう)し、農民支配を強め、荘園侵略を進めていった。荘園領主側は現地の管理を地頭にゆだね、定額の年貢を確保する地頭請(うけ)、一半の地を地頭に与え、荘園領主、地頭が互いに相手に干渉せず、所領を経営する下地中分(したじちゅうぶん)などの解決策をとった。いずれにしても、こうして荘園領主、在地領主の二重支配は一元化する傾向がみられた。

［上横手雅敬］

諸産業の発達

鎌倉中・後期には農業生産が大いに向上した。荘園の複雑な支配関係は、灌漑(かんがい)用水の円滑な利用を妨げたが、水車や用水池の利用も盛んになった。それらは名主・地頭の指導によるものであったが、多くの農民も参加した。苅敷(かりしき)（苗草(なえくさ)）、草木灰(そうもくばい)などの肥料も利用され、牛馬を耕作に使用することも多くなった。農業技術の改良で農業生産は向上し、生産地帯では米・麦の二毛作が行われるようになった。農業生産の発達は農民の地位を向上させ、下人の独立、作人の名主への成長、名主の領主化がみられ、荘園制の基盤を動揺させた。

　農村では農業のかたわら手工業製品を納めたり、手工業のために領主に労役を提供する農民もいた。高度の手工業技術者は、貴族・寺社の保護下に座をつくっていたが、農業生産が発達すると、農村でも専門の手工業者が現れ、一般庶民の需要にも応じるようになった。とくに鍛冶(かじ)・鋳物師(いもじ)が活躍し、農具や日用品を民間に提供した。農業や手工業の発達につれ、荘園の中心、交通の要地では定期市(いち)が開かれ、在地領主や名主が年貢米を銭にかえたり、物々交換を行ったりした。行商人によって、中央の製品は地方にももたらされた。都市では常設の小売店舗として店が現れ、専門商品別の店も増えた。京都や鎌倉では町という商業地域が生まれた。物資輸送もしだいに発達し、馬借(ばしゃく)、車借(しゃしゃく)など専門の運搬業者が現れた。得宗被官や律宗の僧侶(そうりょ)によって港湾施設が整備され、また淀(よど)川などの河川や港湾には問丸(といまる)が発達した。彼らは最初は荘園領主のために運送、保管、委託販売にあたったが、しだいに領主から離れた独立の運送仲介業者となり、一般商品を扱うようになった。宋(そう)との貿易によって、宋銭が広く流通し、貨幣の使用が増すと、年貢は地方の市で銭にかえ、中央の荘園領主に送られることが多くなり、代金決済の方法として為替(かわせ)も始まった。借上(かしあげ)という金融業者も現れ、民間の相互扶助的な金融としては頼母子(たのもし)（無尽(むじん)）が行われた。

［上横手雅敬］

文化

概観

鎌倉時代、とくにその前期には武士の文化水準は低く、依然として貴族文化が盛んであった。武士の台頭は、情緒的で優美な貴族文化に、意志的で剛毅(ごうき)な武士の気風を吹き込み、貴族文化の革新をもたらした。武士も貴族文化を摂取して文化水準を高めた。寺院の勢力は強大で、仏教の占める位置は大きかった。とくに新仏教の興隆などによって、仏教は庶民生活のなかに入っていった。中国との交渉で、禅宗をはじめとする宋元(そうげん)文化が輸入されたことは、幕府上層を中心とする武家文化の向上に大きな影響を与えた。鎌倉文化は多方面で発達したが、ここでは重要な諸点を指摘するにとどめたい。

［上横手雅敬］

東大寺復興と美術

1180年（治承4）平氏に焼かれた東大寺の復興は、国家的な文化事業であった。それは、戦乱で失われた国家の威信を回復するとともに、民衆の素朴な信仰心にこたえる面をももっており、民間僧重源(ちょうげん)を勧進職(かんじんしき)とし、広く信者の寄付を募り、再建の費用を集める方法がとられた。源頼朝が熱心な援助者であったのは、国家の軍事・警察を担当する彼の立場の現れである。東大寺復興は鎌倉美術の出発点ともなった。重源は武士の時代にふさわしく豪快な作風をもつ奈良仏師を起用し、運慶(うんけい)・快慶(かいけい)らによって多くの秀作がつくられた。彼らは天平(てんぴょう)彫刻や宋の様式をも取り入れ、新しい作風をつくりあげた。宋人陳和卿(ちんわけい)が大仏を鋳造し、宋の建築様式である豪放な大仏様が採用されたように、この事業には宋の影響が大きかった。貴族だけの国風(こくふう)の文化として成立した前代の文化とは違って、庶民をも包摂し、中国文化を取り入れ、平安時代を超えて天平のいにしえに戻ろうとするスケールの大きさが、東大寺復興の特色であった。

［上横手雅敬］

源平合戦と文学・歴史

武士の台頭に対する貴族側の対応は、とくに文学において顕著にみられる。武士と合戦を主題とする『保元(ほうげん)物語』『平治(へいじ)物語』『平家(へいけ)物語』などの軍記物語の成立は、その一例である。とくに『平家物語』はそれらの白眉(はくび)であり、興りと亡(ほろ)びの交錯する変革期の歴史を躍動的に描き、新興の武士に対する共感をも示している。『平家物語』は琵琶法師(びわほうし)の語りによって、文字を読めぬ階層にまで享受され、感動を与えた。慈円(じえん)の『愚管抄(ぐかんしょう)』も源平合戦への反省から出発している。現実を末法・乱世と認識した彼は、乱世に至る歴史の理法としての「道理」を追究した。同書は歴史哲学を述べるとともに、政治のあり方に及んでいる。幕府の成立を「道理」として是認する彼は、力づくで幕府を倒そうとするのを誤りだとし、公家(くげ)・武家が協力して天皇を助けるのを政治の理想としている。慈円は「鏡(かがみ)もの」のように、歴史を観照・賛美する立場を捨て、乱世における生き方を求める実践的立場にたっている。貴族社会の内紛や公武の対立を主導的に克服しようとした後鳥羽上皇は、『新古今(しんこきん)和歌集』編纂(へんさん)の中心となった。それは貴族文化の原点である延喜(えんぎ)（『古今和歌集』の時代）への回帰を目ざしており、上皇の政治方針と対応するものであったが、上皇の理想主義的情熱や、波瀾(はらん)の世を生きる歌人たちの緊張は、歌壇の停滞を打破している。

［上横手雅敬］

鎌倉仏教

平安時代以来、仏教の基本的課題は、末法の世における往生のあり方であった。前代の貴族的浄土(じょうど)教を批判的に継承した法然(ほうねん)（源空(げんくう)）は、往生浄土の道は、人々の救済を誓った弥陀(みだ)の本願を信じ、ただ念仏を唱えることだと説き、持戒(じかい)や作善(さぜん)を無用とし、浄土宗を開いた。その弟子親鸞(しんらん)は徹底した信の立場にたち、行(ぎょう)や戒律を否定した。また弥陀の本願は罪深い悪人の救済にあり、仏の他力を信ずれば、悪人も往生できるという悪人正機(しょうき)説を唱えた。その宗派を浄土真宗(しんしゅう)という。浄土宗の一派から出た一遍(いっぺん)は時宗(じしゅう)を開いた。彼は諸国を遊行(ゆぎょう)し、踊念仏(おどりねんぶつ)によって布教し、また従来の浄土宗と違って、神祇(じんぎ)信仰をも布教に利用した。これらの念仏の教えに対して、法華経(ほけきょう)の題目を唱えて往生することを主張し、法華(ほっけ)（日蓮(にちれん)）宗を開いたのが日蓮である。中国からは禅宗が伝わった。鎌倉前期に栄西(えいさい)は宋から臨済(りんざい)禅を伝え、源頼家、北条政子の帰依(きえ)を得、鎌倉に寿福寺(じゅふくじ)、京都に建仁寺(けんにんじ)を建立した。臨済宗はとくに幕府上層武士に信仰され、宋・元の禅僧も渡来した。栄西の弟子道元(どうげん)は、師と異なる道を歩んだ。彼は宋から曹洞(そうとう)禅を伝え、権勢を退け、坐禅(ざぜん)によって自力で悟りを開くことを勧めた。

　新仏教の興隆に対しては、法相(ほっそう)、華厳(けごん)、律(りつ)などの南都仏教を中心に反省が生まれ、時代に即した教義の改革が試みられた。東大寺の復興、天平彫刻の復活にみられるように、奈良文化への回帰は鎌倉文化の一つの特徴であった。念仏系新仏教の戒律否定に対し、南都仏教系では逆に戒律が尊重された。法然を批判した貞慶(じょうけい)（解脱(げだつ)）、高弁(こうべん)（明恵(みょうえ)）によって法相宗、華厳宗が再興され、俊芿(しゅんじょう)は泉涌寺(せんにゅうじ)を中心に京都で、叡尊(えいぞん)は西大寺(さいだいじ)を中心に奈良で、律の復興に努めた。

［上横手雅敬］

武士の文化

武士の生活は質素であったが、実際上の必要と美を競う気持ちから、刀剣、弓矢、甲冑(かっちゅう)などの武具にはくふうが凝らされた。武士は武芸に励み、狩猟、流鏑馬(やぶさめ)、犬追物(いぬおうもの)、笠懸(かさがけ)などの武技が盛んであった。平安時代以来、「武者の習(むしゃのならい)」という武士の生活倫理が形成されたが、その中核は、親への孝をはじめとする家族倫理と、主君との結合における主従倫理とであった。婚姻形態は基本的には嫁入り婚であるが、女性の地位は比較的高く、所領の相続権をももっていた。武士は合戦に加わるだけでなく、狩猟・漁労を行い、殺生(せっしょう)を業(ぎょう)とするだけに、罪障感に襲われ、救済を求め、仏教を深く信仰し、氏寺(うじでら)も多く建てられた。法然、高弁、一遍をはじめ武士出身の僧侶(そうりょ)も多かった。

　幕府は剛健な武士の気風の維持に努める一方、貴族文化を積極的に摂取し武士独自の文化をもつくっていった。北条泰時が制定した『御成敗式目(ごせいばいしきもく)』は最初の武家法典であり、「武者の習」に基づいてつくられている。

　北条時頼のころ得宗専制が成立し、幕府の政治的地位が向上した結果、幕府の指導者の間には治者の自覚が生まれ、文化への関心が高まり、武家文化は著しく向上した。時頼が宋の蘭渓道隆(らんけいどうりゅう)を招き、建長寺を建て、その子時宗は無学祖元(むがくそげん)を招き円覚寺(えんがくじ)を建てるなど、幕府は臨済禅に保護を与えた。幕府は単に禅という宗教にだけ関心をもっていたのではなく、禅に伴うさまざまの宋元文化を受容し、公家(くげ)文化に対抗して武家古典文化をつくろうとしていたのであり、禅とともに禅宗様建築、頂相(ちんそう)（禅宗の肖像画）、水墨画、儒学なども伝えられている。浄土宗も関東に伝わり、念仏僧によって鎌倉大仏（阿弥陀(あみだ)像）がつくられたが、幕府はこれを援助し、造営費を得るため、元に貿易船を派遣した。律宗では叡尊の弟子忍性(にんしょう)が40年間鎌倉で布教し、北条氏に帰依(きえ)され、社会事業にも努めた。これら諸宗は優れた土木技術を伴っており、その点でも幕府に有用であった。念仏僧は大仏をつくり、和賀江島(わかえじま)を築き、律僧は橋を架け、道をつくった。和賀江島が修築され、鎌倉に大船が入港できるようになると、鎌倉と九州とは水路で結ばれ、ここに鎌倉は中国文化の輸入において、京都に先んじることとなった。

　幕府の歴史である『吾妻鏡(あづまかがみ)』も編纂され、金沢実時(かねさわさねとき)が金沢文庫を建てて和漢の書を集めるなど、学問・文学に関心をもつ武士は少なくなかった。

［上横手雅敬］

神祇崇拝の思想

蒙古(もうこ)襲来に対する勝利のゆえもあって、鎌倉後期には神国思想が盛んになった。伊勢(いせ)神宮、とくに外宮(げくう)（豊受大神宮(とようけだいじんぐう)）の神官を中心に伊勢（度会(わたらい)）神道(しんとう)が形成され、従来教義をもたなかった神祇(じんぎ)信仰は、ここに理論をもつようになった。また藤原氏一門の総力をあげて制作された絵巻物『春日権現霊験記(かすがごんげんれいげんき)』では、藤原氏の氏神である春日神社の神威が説かれた。『日本書紀』、とくに神代巻(じんだいのまき)の研究も進められ、卜部兼方(うらべかねかた)の『釈日本紀(しゃくにほんぎ)』に集大成された。

　神国思想は、従来の本地垂迹(ほんじすいじゃく)説とは逆に仏に対する神の優位を説いている。また念仏系新仏教にみられる神祇不拝の傾向に対して、神祇崇拝を強調し、神威によって幕府や悪党に対抗することを主張するなど、朝廷側の皇権回復の動きに連なるような政治性をも備えている。

［上横手雅敬］

風俗・生活

衣服

平安時代に下級の役人が着用した狩衣(かりぎぬ)・水干(すいかん)は武士の正装となり、武士は平素は直垂(ひたたれ)を着用した。上層農民、有力商人も直垂で、庶民は小袖(こそで)に括袴(くくりばかま)を用いた。豪族の女性は小袖に袿(うちき)や打掛(うちかけ)を着用、平素は小袖の着流(きなが)しであった。庶民の女性は、小袖に褶(しびら)（腰裳(こしも)）か、小袖着流しが普通であった。被(かぶ)り物では一般に烏帽子(えぼし)を用いたが、一部ではなにもかぶらない風習もあった。髪型は普通髻(もとどり)が行われたが、身分によりさまざまであった。女性は市女笠(いちめがさ)をかぶったり、被衣(かずき)を羽織ったりした。従来、はだしであった庶民も、足駄(あしだ)や草履(ぞうり)を用いるようになった。衣服、被り物、髪型は身分によって異なっており、ある種の身分標示として機能していた。

［上横手雅敬］

食物

食事は1日2回が原則であったが、労働の激しい人々は、1、2回の間食をとった。貴族社会では食生活が形式化し、故実(こじつ)が生まれたり、動物性食品を忌む風習がおこったりしたが、庶民の生活はこれとは関係なく、貧しいながらも健康なものであった。彼らは米穀のほか、雑穀や芋類をいっしょに煮炊きし、山野河海からとれるすべてのものを食用に供し、主食と副食との区別は困難であった。調味料は塩、酢、味噌(みそ)、煎汁(いろり)（カツオなどを煮つめた汁）を用い、甘味料には飴(あめ)、蜂蜜(はちみつ)、甘葛煎(あまずらせん)（葛草(つるくさ)の煮汁）、干柿(ほしがき)の粉があった。貴族が飲む酒の種類は増えたが、庶民の酒は濁(にごり)酒であった。旅行の際には、焼米(やきごめ)、糒(ほしいい)、干物(ひもの)、海藻などの保存食を用いた。

［上横手雅敬］

住居

貴族は前代からの寝殿造(しんでんづくり)の住宅に居住した。武士の住居は、高台や交通の要地に建てられ、周囲に堀、土塁、垣根を巡らし、堀の内、土居(どい)とよばれた。主人である武士の居室（主殿）を中心に、警固の武士が詰める遠侍(とおざむらい)のほか、厩(うまや)、櫓(やぐら)など武士の生活に必要な設備を備えていた。屋根は萱葺(かやぶ)き、板葺きで、主殿にも一部しか畳を敷いていなかった。京・鎌倉などの町屋は切妻(きりづま)の板葺きが多く、内部は板の間、一般農民の家は掘立て小屋で、土間に籾殻(もみがら)や藁(わら)を敷き、上に蓆(むしろ)を敷いており、屋根は萱葺き、藁葺きであった。

［上横手雅敬］

芸能・娯楽・俗信

都市の祭りは華麗の度を加えた。村落でも名主(みょうしゅ)を中心とする座の神事が行われ、さらに多くの村人も加わるようになり、都市の祭りが農村にも受け入れられた。芸能の主流を形成したのは、身分的に賤視(せんし)された人々である。琵琶法師(びわほうし)は琵琶にあわせ『平家(へいけ)物語』などの語物(かたりもの)を語った。白拍子(しらびょうし)は歌舞を演じた。鎌倉後期にはそのなかから曲舞(くせまい)がおこり、能楽(のうがく)の形成に影響を与えた。田楽(でんがく)や猿楽(さるがく)も盛んで座をつくって上演し、のち能(のう)・狂言(きょうげん)に発展した。貴族が独占していた遊戯も庶民に広まり、大陸から伝わっていた囲碁(いご)、将棋(しょうぎ)、双六(すごろく)も盛んになった。とくに双六は貴族から庶民まで行われ、賭博(とばく)化したため、幕府や朝廷はしばしば禁令を出した。また民間では印地打(いんじうち)（石打）がおこったが、争闘となって禁止されることもあった。出産は坐産(ざさん)で、妊婦が腹帯を巻く習慣もあり、宮参(みやまい)りも行われた。育児には乳母(めのと)、里子(さとご)、子守など、他人の助力を借りることもあった。成人の儀にあたり、武士などでは烏帽子親(えぼしおや)をたてる習俗が普及した。葬制については、民間では死体遺棄に近いことも行われたようで、葬地と離れて別に祭地を設け、そこで供養を行う風習があったと思われる。

［上横手雅敬］

『三浦周行著『日本史の研究　新輯一』（1982・岩波書店）』▽『石井進著『日本の歴史7　鎌倉幕府』（1965・中央公論社）』▽『黒田俊雄著『日本の歴史8　蒙古襲来』（1965・中央公論社）』▽『上横手雅敬著『日本中世政治史研究』（1970・塙書房）』▽『黒田俊雄他著『岩波講座　日本歴史5』（1975・岩波書店）』▽『大山喬平著『日本の歴史9　鎌倉幕府』（1974・小学館）』▽『網野善彦著『日本の歴史10　蒙古襲来』（1974・小学館）』▽『上横手雅敬編『図説日本文化の歴史5　鎌倉』（1979・小学館）』▽『佐藤進一著『日本の中世国家』（1983・岩波書店）』