Japanese cuisine - Nihonryori

Japanese: 日本料理 - にほんりょうり

Japanese cuisine refers to cuisine that has developed uniquely in the Japanese climate. Its ingredients, preparation methods, and eating methods vary greatly from era to era. If cooking is defined in a broad sense as modifying food to make it easier to eat, or improving the flavor by combining two or more foods, then the origins of cooking would date back to the Stone Age or even earlier. However, there are no written records from these periods, and from an archaeological standpoint, we must determine the origins from excavations and surveys of artifact-bearing layers, shell mounds, fossils, etc., so here we will start from the era for which there are documents.

The Japanese archipelago is blessed with seasonal winds, with distinct seasons, and each season produces different produce. There is also an extremely large variety of living organisms, and Japan has a particularly high proportion of fish species that live in Japan compared to the rest of the world. There are not as many bird species, but the variety of animals and plants is quite large considering the size of the country. Therefore, by appropriately combining edible plants and animals, it has been possible to create a wide variety of delicious and nutritious dishes.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

history

Ancient

According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, the brothers Honosuseri no Mikoto (Umisachihiko) and Hikohohodemi no Mikoto (Yamasachihiko), great-grandsons of Amaterasu Omikami, obtained edible produce from the sea and mountains, respectively. The Jinmu Tenno Ki, written three generations later, records candy, beef and sake, etc. The 53rd year of the "Keiko Emperor Chronicle" states that when the emperor obtained clams (not clams, but abalone, as Kurokawa Masayori believes) at the water gate of Awa Province (possibly Kyonan Town, Chiba Prefecture) Iwakamutsukari no Mikoto prepared them as a namasu (savage dish) and presented them to the emperor, which is generally considered to be the origin of Japanese cuisine. For this achievement, Mutsugari no Mikoto was given the official position of Kashiwa de no Otomobe, and his descendants, the Takahashi clan, have been in charge of cooking at the imperial court for generations. In the early Heian period, the Takahashi clan, who were the Naizenshi (Chief of the Naizen Office), fought with their colleagues the Azumi clan over the preparation of divine meals, and submitted a document of history, the "Takahashi Ujibumi," to the imperial court, proving their own legitimacy. It was after the introduction of Buddhism (538-552) that cuisine began to take on a more refined form. Agricultural production also increased, and health foods and therapeutic foods came into consideration.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Asuka and Nara periods

The custom of catching wild animals such as boars and deer several times a year for medicinal hunting and eating them as a family was called "health food," and this custom dates back to before the Nara period. Cooking methods such as simmering, grilling, and steaming have been practiced since ancient times, but deep-frying is a cooking method introduced from Korea and China and has been practiced by some people for a long time. Regarding meat consumption, there were prohibitions issued during the reigns of Emperor Tenmu (reigned 673-686), Emperor Shomu (reigned 724-749), and Emperor Kanmu (reigned 781-806) that allowed the eating of wild animals but not livestock. Emperor Kanmu moved the capital from Nara to Kyoto, but prior to that, in 784 (Enryaku 3), the capital had been moved to Nagaoka (Nagaokakyo City, Kyoto Prefecture), and then moved back to Kyoto in 794. During the capital move, immigrant clans provided special cooperation. As a result, there are many Chinese names for places in Kyoto, and many Chinese cooking methods have been incorporated.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Heian Period

It was during the reign of Emperor Saga (reigned 809-823) that Chinese cuisine was used as banquet food at the Imperial Court. At that time China was in the Tang Dynasty, and goods imported from China were called karamono (Chinese goods). The name karaage (fried chicken) is still used as a cooking method today, but in the Heian period there was also kara-ni (boiled chicken). Even back then, dishes such as "bear paw dishes," a prized Chinese dish, were being made, and Chinese-style natto and sushi (nare-zushi) also existed. The use of edible oils (sesame oil, perilla oil) increased significantly, due to the influence of Chinese cooking methods. In the Shin Sarugakuki by Fujiwara Akihira, compiled in the early 11th century, there is a dish of boiled sardines in vinegar, but since it seems that the method of making artificial vinegar was not fully understood at the time, it is thought that fruit vinegar or soy sauce mixed with soybeans, glutinous rice, wheat, sake, salt, etc., which naturally oxidized to produce a sour taste, was used. Rice-based foods also became popular, and dishes such as kowameshi (steamed rice), himei (cooked rice like today), shirukayu (porridge), and mizosu (a type of porridge) were created. In addition, kashikigate (mixed rice of rice, wheat, beans, etc.) and hoishii (a preserved food made by drying steamed rice) were also made. Various types of sake were also made. In addition to drinking it, it was also used as a seasoning, and it is thought that the naturally fermented form was used as vinegar. Kyoto was also influenced by China, and gluten, yuba, frozen tofu and other preserved foods were used. Chinese influences also made their way into ceremonial food, with dishes such as toso for New Year's Day, nanakusa-gayu for January 7th, and urabon dishes for July 15th being created. Advances in food also led to the development of tableware, and silver, bronze, lacquerware, and glass sake cups were made, as well as oshiki and daiban trays for holding these items. However, the diet of the general public was far inferior. Towards the end of the Heian period, laws regarding dining etiquette were beginning to be established, but the regent Fujiwara Tadazane said, "People do not know how to eat food. In particular, vegetables with soup are the same thing, leaves with cold soup are the same thing, eating food with chopsticks is the same thing, eating food with your hands is the same thing. There are distinctions between all of these. And yet modern people are completely unaware of this."

After the Hogen and Heiji Rebellions (1156-1159) ended and the era of the Taira clan began, the Taira clan traded with the Song Dynasty in China and even tried out Chinese cuisine during business negotiations with Song merchants, but this is not generally known to the public.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Kamakura period

The Kamakura Shogunate was established by Minamoto no Yoritomo and samurai government began, but at first there was little cultural awareness and no interest in cooking, so progress and improvement slowed down. The Azuma Kagami, October 13, 1190, contains a passage about Yoritomo being very happy when Sasaki Moritsuna presented him with dried salmon at Kikugawa-juku on the Tokaido road. This is proof that the level of culinary arts at the time was low. The Minamoto government ended after three generations and the Hojo regents came into power, but the custom of frugality was strong and meals became more practical. Samurai and monks at that time ate two meals a day. When Zen monks were practicing zazen in winter, they would heat a stone, wrap it in a cloth, and carry it in their pocket to keep them warm. This is called Onjaku, but as a substitute for this, this light meal was called Kaiseki-dairi, and later shortened to Kaiseki. This dish became associated with the tea ceremony and was combined with Nagasaki cuisine, gradually evolving into a luxurious dish.

The uniquely Japanese tea ceremony was born when the Buddhist monk Eisai brought tea back from China and tried to popularize it. This was combined with kaiseki to create tea cuisine with a new feel and content. Furthermore, a notable feature of the culinary arts of the Kamakura period was the study of promoting health and overcoming illness through food. This is found in Kajiwara Shozen's Tonisho (early 14th century) and Teikinoourai (early Muromachi period), also said to have been written by Gen'ei. From the Kamakura period onwards, the secret techniques of each of the cooking schools, such as the Ikama school, the Ookusa school, and the Shijo school, can be found scattered throughout the country.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Muromachi period

During the Muromachi period, there was exchange with overseas countries, such as trade by Kango ships (ships sent to Ming China), and with the emphasis on culture, culinary arts made a groundbreaking leap forward. In particular, the eighth shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, built Ginkakuji Temple and also put effort into various cultural projects and arts and crafts. On the other hand, Kyoto's cultural assets were burned or destroyed during the Onin War (1467-1477). During this period, known as the Higashiyama period, the culinary world saw the establishment of a nearly perfect form for meal etiquette ceremonies. A tentative form had already been established for the nobles in the Heian period, but it became more complex and a form suitable for the samurai was established. Imagawa Ryōshun's Imagawa Oozōshi (mid-15th century) contains many articles about samurai etiquette, but also includes sections on "Etiquette for Food" and "Etiquette for Alcohol."

Cooking styles were also established in the Muromachi period. The Shijo style, founded by Fujiwara Yamakage, the Shijo Chunagon (Chuunagon) of the Heian period, was used by the Imperial Court and the nobility, but was widely adopted by samurai families in the Higashiyama period and made great strides. The Shijo Style Knife Book, with a colophon dated 1489, was also completed. The Shinji and Ikoma styles are said to have been established in the Kamakura period for the samurai class, but the Okusa style, which was born during this period, was highly valued by the Ashikaga government and led the culinary world in the Higashiyama period. Later, in the Edo period, the Shijo style moved to Edo and was adopted for festival and event meals in townspeople, and luxurious restaurant-style cuisine also began to emerge from here. The Okusa style died out, but the Shinji style, which was also a samurai dish but was overshadowed by the Okusa style, remains in the cuisine of the Honganji Temple. In this era, the ingredients of a dish were classified into fine and coarse. Many fish, shellfish, and poultry were classified as fine, while most vegetables were coarse, with some being classified as fine. The order of eating was also determined by the ingredients, with seafood first, followed by mountain products, field products, and village products, with sea bream being placed on the right side of the seafood. However, if carp was available, it was given priority, and whale meat was placed on the far right side.

Honzen cuisine is a ceremonial meal in Japanese cuisine. It was created in the Muromachi period, but the exact year is unclear. Honzen cuisine is used when several people are dining together, and when people of the same rank gather, a high-legged meal with a height of about 35 centimeters is used. Also, when inviting people of lower rank than oneself, the height of the meal is lowered. The meals served next to the honzen are numbered, such as the second meal and the third meal, and soup is always added to these. Meals without soup are not numbered, no matter how many there are, and are simply called sobazen. The forms of each school of celebratory meals, such as the "shikisankon," "shichigosanzen," and "gosansanzen," became the basis of honzen cuisine. The complex etiquette of honzen cuisine continued until the early Showa period, although there were some changes over time.

At the end of the Muromachi period, Francis Xavier came to Kagoshima (1549), and people who converted to Christianity tried eating beef. In "Nagusami-gusa" (1652 (Keian 5) with postscript by Matsunaga Teitoku), it is written that "When Christians entered Japan, the Kyoto people called beef "waka" and mochi was popular." Waka is the Portuguese word for beef.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Azuchi-Momoyama period

Oda Nobunaga's daily life was spent fighting, so he had no interest in cooking and did not know the taste of upper class cooking, as written in Jozan Yuasa's Jozan Kidan (1739). However, military food was fairly streamlined. A class system of warriors, townspeople, and farmers was established, and the style of food was determined according to class. In the Momoyama period, the upper class could hold lavish party meals. The tea ceremony also became popular, and Sen no Rikyu specified the detailed format of tea ceremony and kaiseki cuisine. At the end of the 16th century, after the Bunroku-Keicho Invasion, Korean potters who had been taken to Japan began manufacturing ceramics, and cooking using them was also studied, leading to rapid development in various regions, but this was temporarily halted after the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. On the other hand, Nanban cuisine and Nanban sweets (such as castella and konpeito sugar) that were introduced by the Portuguese and Spanish were also being made.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Edo period

When Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo Shogunate in the early 17th century, Edo's prosperity accelerated, and Kanto-style Japanese cuisine came to have a system of its own. However, many of these dishes used raw ingredients, while Kansai cuisine was technically superior and had many unique dishes that were finished by heating, creating its own system. However, nationwide, the quality of cooking in the daily lives of ordinary people was low. In "Zoku Heikasawa," it is written that when Tokugawa Ieyasu visited the home of Nagata Heizaemon in Ohama, he ordered the following to be eaten: barley rice with radish mixed with salt, inada soup, dried sardines, pickled vegetables, and boiled konjac. Also, during the time of the third Shogun, Iemitsu, Mōri Kai no Kami and others enjoyed exchanging the vegetables in their lunch boxes that they brought with them. One day Kai no Kami brought boiled carp, which everyone happily ate, calling it a delicacy, according to the Tamahahaki (1696). These stories suggest that the quality of cooking at that time was low. After the sankin-kotai system was established in 1635 (Kan'ei 12) and feudal lords from all over the country began to move to Edo, local specialty foods were introduced to Edo and began to influence Edo cuisine. During the Kanbun era (1661-1673) of the fourth Shogun, Ietsuna, a specialty store selling sobakiri, made by kneading buckwheat flour into thin strips, was established, and it continues to thrive to this day. The custom of enjoying the taste of vegetables and fruits harvested out of season, calling them "hatsumono" (first fruits), emerged, and the lives of townspeople began to move in a more luxurious direction. The shogunate established vegetable sales seasons twice, in 1686 (Jokyo 3) and 1693 (Genroku 6), effectively banning the sale of first fruits, but this was not always followed.

It was after the Kyoho era (1716-1736) of the eighth shogun, Yoshimune, that culinary arts made great strides. Specialist chefs appeared, but it wasn't until 1771 (Meiwa 8) that full-scale restaurants first appeared in Edo. They were mainly used by the feudal lords' hostesses, known as orusuiyaku, as a place for diplomatic negotiations between the Edo residences of the various feudal domains, and so were also called orusui teahouses. Many more orusui teahouses were established following this, but most closed during Matsudaira Sadanobu's Kansei Reforms (1787-1793). However, the appearance of the teahouses meant that the foundations of kaiseki cuisine, which was a departure from the strict etiquette of honzen cuisine, were established, and this marked the beginning of the culture of restaurants. The art of cooking made great advances during this time, and improved remarkably during the Bunka and Bunsei eras (1804-1830), when Edo culture flourished, and many ryotei (traditional Japanese restaurants) were established. Ota Shokusanjin said, "There is not a building every five steps, and a pavilion every ten steps that is not a restaurant." However, with the Tenpo Reforms (1841-1843), many ryotei closed, and the progress of cooking came to a temporary halt, but it soon prospered even more than before.

In Nagasaki, the trading center, even during the period of isolation, through exchanges with Chinese and Dutch people, shippoku cuisine, which mixed Western and Chinese characteristics, was born and became popular. "Shippoku" is a Chinese pronunciation and refers to the cloth used to cover a Chinese dining table, or the food itself. Shippoku cuisine, where several people eat together around a table, felt extremely new to the Japanese, who were used to eating meals of individual portions. In addition, the Zen priest Ingen, who naturalized in Japan from China, introduced fucha cuisine, which was the vegetarian cuisine of Obaku sect temples, and while it influenced shippoku cuisine, it became popular as vegetarian cuisine for banquets. Popular specialty restaurants such as sushi restaurants, tempura restaurants, and soba restaurants also opened among the general public. Nigiri sushi was started by Hanaya Yohei in the early Bunsei era (1818-1830) and is said to have become the source of today's prosperity in sushi, but the thick rolled sushi was around the time of Tenmei (1781-1789) and could be said to have been a precursor to it. The custom of eating meat began in the early Genroku era (1688-1704) when miso-marinated beef was made in the Hikone domain and was used as a healthy food by important members of the shogunate and other upper class people. In the mid-Edo period, wild animal butchers (momonjiya) were established in Kojimachi, Hirakawacho and Ryogoku, where common people could enjoy meat from wild boar, deer, monkey and rabbit.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

After the Meiji Period

In the Meiji period, Japanese cuisine maintained its traditional form, but gradually changed to fit the times. The simple banquet dishes created during the Bunka era (1804-1818) were modified to appear as kaiseki cuisine. However, the dishes that represent the Meiji period are Western cuisine and gyu-nabe (beef hotpot). Western cuisine made a rapid advance after Seiyoken was established in 1872 (Meiji 5), and gyu-nabe became a specialty dish along with Western cuisine. Gyu-nabe in Kanto started as sukiyaki in Kansai, and the name was later unified to sukiyaki, developing into a representative Japanese dish. Many restaurants specialized in oden, sushi, kabayaki, soba, etc. were established. There was a remarkable increase in the use of imported vegetables as cooking ingredients, and pumpkins, which were first called bobra in Portuguese, and tomatoes, which were called coral tree eggplant and karagaki in the mid-Edo period as ornamental plants, began to be used. Japanese people started eating tomatoes after 1877. Chinese cabbage and spinach had been cultivated since the first year of the Meiji era, but they were not mass-produced until 1907 (Meiji 40).

For four years from 1917 (Taisho 6), Japan enjoyed an economic boom due to the effects of World War I, and cooking made a remarkable leap forward. A distinctive feature of the culinary industry was the fact that many large mansions were converted into restaurants. The exchange of cuisine between Kanto and Kansai was also a feature of this period. For example, Kanto's stewed oden was adapted to the Kansai style under the name "Kanto-daki," which then found its way back to Kanto. The damage caused by the Great Kanto Earthquake (1923) also led to changes in cooking. One example of this is the creation of kamameshi, a dish cooked in a small pot, inspired by the experience of people eating rice cooked in a pot that had not yet burned down immediately after the earthquake, directly from the pot.

In the early Showa period, Kansai cuisine spread to Tokyo, and Kanto-style Japanese cuisine gradually receded. Eventually, Kansai cuisine became the mainstream of Japanese cuisine and spread throughout the country. Around 1932 (Showa 7), Western-style pork cutlets, called tonkatsu, entered the field of Japanese cuisine. They are characterized by being served with shredded cabbage and being deep-fried and then cut with a knife to make them more palatable. Later, a rice bowl dish called katsudon (don) also appeared. Dietary habits changed dramatically after the Pacific War, and the emphasis on flour-based foods continued even after the war, with rice consumption decreasing. What remained unchanged in Japanese cuisine was sashimi and grilled fish, but since charcoal was no longer used, finely grilled dishes became less common. As home cooking utensils became more widespread, the way food was prepared also changed. In particular, it became difficult to distinguish between Japanese, Western, and Chinese cuisine. It can be said that all cuisines were linked together and a new Japanese cuisine was being born.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Features

They place importance on giving a sense of the season to ingredients and cooking methods, and value the taste of the season. They also do not use strong spices in order to cook while taking advantage of the natural flavors of the ingredients. Most of the dishes were created and developed to harmonize with rice, which is the staple food, and sake. In other words, they are side dishes (sai) for rice, and fish (sakana/fish) for sake. "Sakana" originally meant "sakana" (food to eat with sake). As mentioned in the "History" section, the use of meat as an ingredient was extremely rare before the modern era, which is one of the reasons why Japanese cuisine has a light taste. There was also little use of animal fat, let alone vegetable oil. To compensate for this, unique "dashi" (stock) made from kelp, bonito flakes, etc. was invented. Also, soy sauce, which began to be used in the late Muromachi period and became widespread during the Edo period, became a major factor in characterizing the taste of Japanese cuisine as a basic seasoning. Japanese cuisine is said to be food to behold, and is characterized by its emphasis on beauty of appearance, presentation techniques, and harmony with tableware. Japanese cuisine can be broadly divided into Kansai and Kanto styles, but it is also important to note that there are unique regional dishes in each region of the country that have been born from the region's climate, geography, produce, and events.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Classification

(1) Foods with a formal character: Honzen cuisine, kaiseki cuisine, takubuku cuisine, kaiseki cuisine, bento-style cuisine, rice bowls, etc. (2) Foods made for special occasions: New Year's cuisine, seasonal dishes, cuisine for Shinto and Buddhist festivals, etc. (3) Foods with a strong regional character: Regional dishes, zouni and other special occasion foods. (4) Foods with a strong character in the ingredients: Shojin cuisine, river fish dishes, wild vegetable dishes, egg dishes, poultry dishes, meat dishes, etc.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Japanese cuisine menus have developed and become complicated based on rice, soup, and pickles as standard. In addition to rice, soup, and pickles, everyday menus include simmered, deep-fried, or grilled main dishes, and side dishes such as salads and boiled vegetables. In the case of kaiseki cuisine, which is used for entertaining guests, the menu is made up of a combination of 3 to 11 dishes in addition to the basic dishes. Ingredients are selected from a harmonious mix of early-season dishes, in-season foods, seafood, mountain foods, and game and game, and the menu is made with a focus on the main dish, dishes that lead to the main dish, and dishes that leave a lingering aftertaste, giving it a sense of intensity and vigor. Sake is offered between dishes, and it is common to end the meal by offering rice, pickles, fruit, sweets, and hot water after the sake.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Tableware

In ancient times, leaves (large leaves from oak and Japanese laurel) were used, followed by shells, carved plain wood, and unglazed earthenware. In the Asuka period, sueki ware was produced, and bronze and silver ware were also used, and lacquerware was introduced from China in the Heian period. Pottery developed rapidly in the Kamakura period, and ceramics became common in the Edo period. In modern times, the variety of tableware has become wider, with ceramics at the center and lacquerware, glassware, metal tableware, and plastic tableware. In Japanese cuisine, portions are generally served for one person and there is a large number of dishes, but one of the characteristics is to show off the beauty of the shape and pattern of the dishes, and the beauty of the presentation. Attention is also given to the flowers, birds, wind, and moon in the patterns on the dishes, and in serious cases, there are rules for the dishes to be appropriate for the season. However, nowadays, there is less emphasis on formality, and there is a trend, especially in households, to freely select dishes according to the number of people and preferences. It is common knowledge that Japanese tableware is set in units of five guests, but this is no longer the case in modern households, and there is an increase in tableware that can be used for both Japanese and Western cuisine.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

Manners

The dining etiquette for Japanese cuisine was established in the mid-Muromachi period, but because it was complicated and impractical, it has gradually been simplified in general. The basics of dining etiquette are to sit upright, not make noise, match your eating speed with that of the host and guest, and clean up the tray and plate after eating without making a mess. Chopstick usage is not as strict these days, but using chopsticks in a straight line (pushing food into your mouth with the tips of the chopsticks), eating one vegetable after the other, feeling around with chopsticks (stirring food in the bowl with the chopsticks to take what you want), and picking food off the chopsticks with your mouth were all prohibited.

In kaiseki cuisine, when a meal is brought to you, you bow, say "Osakini" to the next guest, accept it, take your chopsticks out of the bag and place them on the chopstick rest. Disposable chopsticks should be broken gently in the middle on your lap. It is polite to accept the first sip of sake even if you cannot drink it. You can eat appetizers while receiving them with the kaishi paper, and for soup, you may hold the bowl. If the bowl is on the right side, you should take the lid of the bowl with your right hand and place it on the right side, and if it is on the left side, you should take the lid with your right hand, switch it to your left hand and place it on the left side. You should take the bowl first and then take the chopsticks. When eating a whole fish, you should place your chopsticks under the eye, and after eating the upper part, remove the backbone and eat the lower part, putting the bones in a corner of the plate. When eating skewered dishes, remove the skewer before eating, and when eating kamaboko and other foods, be careful not to leave teeth marks. Take the bowl with both hands before switching it to the left hand. When you receive a second bowl of soup or a refill of rice, place it on the tray and then pick it up again. When you receive tea, wash the tips of your chopsticks and clean them with a kaishi before returning them to the tray. If the dishes are all served at once, eat the ones that have cooled down and will lose flavor first.

[Tetsunosuke Tada]

"New Edition of Basic Japanese Cuisine by Doi Masaru (1983, Shibata Shoten)" ▽ "Cooking Literature Commentary edited by Kawakami Yukizo (1978, Shibata Shoten)"

Samurai meals as seen in "Sake and Meals"
A meal for a high-ranking samurai in the Muromachi period. A large and small folding tray with legs (main and second trays) are lined up, along with a small folding tray (third tray) on the left. The main tray has five kinds of vegetables, rice and soup, while the second tray has three kinds of vegetables. The third tray also has two kinds of delicacies. A woman serving sake stands by in the room, holding a sake cup. "Sake and Meshi Ron" (A copy of the book is held by the National Diet Library )

Samurai meals as seen in "Sake and Meals"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

日本料理とは、日本の風土で独特に発達した料理をいう。その材料、作り方、食べ方などは時代によって非常に異なる。食物に手を加えて食べやすくしたり、2種以上の食品を組み合わせることにより味をよくすることが広義にみて料理であるとするならば、料理の起源は石器時代、あるいはそれ以前までさかのぼるであろう。しかしこれらの時代は文献はなく、考古学の見地から遺物包含層、貝塚、化石などの発掘・調査により判断することになるので、ここでは文献のある時代から記することにする。

　日本列島は季節風に恵まれ、春夏秋冬の別がはっきりしており、それぞれの産物が異なっている。また生物の種類が非常に多く、とくに魚類は、世界で生息する種類中、日本産の占める比率が著しく高い。鳥類はさほどではないが、獣類、植物類も面積のわりにその種類は多いほうである。したがってこれらの動植物で食用になるものを適宜組み合わせて、美味で栄養のある料理をバラエティー豊かにつくりだすことができたのである。

［多田鉄之助］

歴史

古代

『古事記』『日本書紀』によると、天照大神(あまてらすおおみかみ)の曽孫(そうそん)である火闌降命(ほのすせりのみこと)（海幸彦）・彦火火出見尊(ひこほほでみのみこと)（山幸彦）の兄弟神は、それぞれ海・山の食用産物を得ていた。それから3代後の「神武(じんむ)天皇紀」には飴(あめ)、牛酒(ししざけ)などのことが記してある。「景行(けいこう)天皇紀」53年条に、安和(あわ)国の水門(みなと)（千葉県鋸南(きょなん)町か）で天皇が白蛤(うむぎ)（ハマグリにあらず。アワビとする黒川真頼(まより)説に従う）を得たおり、磐鹿六雁命(いわかむつかりのみこと)がこれを膾(なます)にして奉ったとあり、一般にはこれが日本料理の起源とされている。この功により六雁命は膳大伴部(かしわでのおおともべ)の官職を与えられ、その子孫高橋氏は代々宮中料理を担当することとなった。平安初期、内膳司(ないぜんし)であった高橋氏は神膳調進をめぐって同僚安曇(あずみ)氏と争い、自らの正統性を示す由緒書「高橋氏文(うじぶみ)」を朝廷に提出している。料理がかなり整った形態をみるようになったのは、仏教が伝来（538年ないし552年）してからである。農作物の生産も増加し、健康食や治療食なども考えられている。

［多田鉄之助］

飛鳥・奈良時代

薬猟(くすりがり)として年に数回、イノシシやシカなどの野獣を捕らえて一族で食べるのを養生食といったが、この風習は奈良朝以前からある。調理法としては煮物、焼き物、蒸し物は古くから行われたが、揚げ物は朝鮮や中国からの伝来調理法で、一部の人たちの間では古くから行われていた。肉食については、野獣は大いに食べてよいが家畜は食べるなという禁令が天武(てんむ)天皇（在位673～686）、聖武(しょうむ)天皇（在位724～749）、桓武(かんむ)天皇（在位781～806）の代に出ている。桓武天皇は首都を奈良から京都に移したが、それ以前784年（延暦3）長岡（京都府長岡京市）に遷都し、794年に京都へ移った。遷都に際しては渡来系氏族が格別の協力をした。そのために京都の地名には中国名がかなりみられるし、調理法にも中国風が多く取り入れられるようになった。

［多田鉄之助］

平安時代

中国料理が宮中の宴会料理として用いられたのは、嵯峨(さが)天皇（在位809～823）の時代である。当時中国は唐の時代で、中国渡来の品々を唐物(からもの)といった。調理法では唐揚げの名称はいまでも用いているが、平安時代には唐煮もあった。当時すでに、中国料理で珍重されている「熊の掌(てのひら)の料理」のようなものもつくっていたし、中国風の納豆、すし（なれずし）のごときも存在していた。食用油（ごま油、荏油(えのあぶら)）の使用が著しく多くなったのも、中国料理法の影響である。11世紀初頭に成立した藤原明衡(あきひら)の『新猿楽記(しんさるがくき)』にイワシの酢煮がみえ、当時、人工酢の作り方は本格的にはわかっていないとみられるので、果物酢か、または醤(ひしお)を大豆、糯米(もちごめ)、小麦、酒、塩などで和(あ)えたものが自然に酸化して酸味を生じたものを用いたと思われる。米食の型も盛んになり、強飯(こわめし)（蒸し米）、姫飯(ひめいい)（現在のような炊き飯）、汁粥(しるかゆ)、味噌水(みぞうす)（雑炊の一種）などがつくられた。それに、飯(かしきがて)（米・麦・豆などの混ぜ飯）、糒(ほしいい)（蒸した飯を乾燥させた保存食）などもあった。酒もいろいろつくられた。飲用のほかに調味料としても用いていたし、また、自然発酵したものを酢として用いていたと思われる。また京都では、中国の影響も受けて、麩(ふ)、湯葉(ゆば)、凍り豆腐などを保存食として用いていた。行事食にも唐風が入り、元旦(がんたん)の屠蘇(とそ)、1月7日の七草粥(ななくさがゆ)、7月15日の盂蘭盆(うらぼん)の料理などがつくられた。食事の進歩は食器の発達にもつながり、銀器、青銅器、漆器、ガラスの酒杯などもつくられ、これらをのせる折敷(おしき)、台盤などもできた。ただし、一般庶民の食生活ははるかに低いものであった。平安朝の末には、食礼法がそろそろできてくるのだが、関白藤原忠実(ただざね)は「人は物を食い食様(くいよう)を知らざる也(なり)、就中(なかんずく)、汁に食菜(くうな)は其物(そのもの)、冷汁に食葉は其物、箸(はし)にて物を食するは其物、手にて食する物は其物、皆差別あり。而(し)かして近代の人全くこれを知らず」といっている。

　保元(ほうげん)・平治(へいじ)の乱（1156～1159）が終わり平氏の時代となると、平氏一門は中国宋(そう)と貿易を行い、宋の商人との商談などで中国料理の味も試みているのだが、それは一般には紹介されていない。

［多田鉄之助］

鎌倉時代

源頼朝(よりとも)によって鎌倉幕府が置かれ武家政治が始まったが、初めは文化的感覚が低く、料理などには関心もなくて、その進歩向上はスピードを緩めた。『吾妻鏡(あづまかがみ)』建久(けんきゅう)元年（1190）10月13日条に、頼朝が東海道菊川宿で佐々木盛綱(もりつな)からサケの楚割(すわやり)（素干し）を献上され、大いに喜んだと大きく取り上げられているのは、当時の料理道の程度が低かったのを証明するものであろう。源政権は3代で短く終わり、北条執権の時代となったが、質素倹約の風習が強く、食事も実用的になっていった。当時の武士、僧侶(そうりょ)は1日2食であった。禅僧が坐禅(ざぜん)の行に入る場合など、冬には身体を暖めるために石を熱して布で包み、懐中に入れていた。これを温石(おんじゃく)というが、この代用に軽く食べることを考え、この軽食を懐石(かいせき)代りといい、のちに略して懐石といった。この料理は茶道と結び付いたり、長崎料理といっしょになったりして、しだいに豪華な料理に変化していくのである。

　仏僧栄西(えいさい)が中国から茶を持ち帰りその普及を図った結果、日本独特の茶道が生まれた。これと懐石が結び付き、新しい感覚と内容の茶料理が生まれるのである。さらに、鎌倉時代の料理道において特筆すべきは、食物による健康増進と病気克服の研究である。これについては梶原性全(かじわらしょうぜん)の『頓医抄(とんいしょう)』（14世紀初）、玄恵(げんえ)作ともいわれる『庭訓往来(ていきんおうらい)』（室町初期）などに出ている。鎌倉時代からは、生間(いかま)流、大草(おおくさ)流、四条流など料理の流儀について、それぞれの秘法などが散見できる。

［多田鉄之助］

室町時代

室町時代は、勘合(かんごう)船（遣明(けんみん)船）による貿易など海外との交流もあり、文化に重点を置いたこともあって、料理道は画期的な躍進をみた。とくに8代将軍足利義政(あしかがよしまさ)は銀閣寺を建て、各方面の文化事業や美術工芸にも力を入れた。かたや応仁(おうにん)の乱（1467～1477）によって、京都の文化財が焼失したり破壊されたりもした。いわゆる東山時代とよばれるこの時代には、料理の世界では食礼式が完全に近い型を整えてきた。これは、公家(くげ)方では、すでに平安時代にいちおうの型ができてはいたが、さらにそれが複雑化し、武家方にも適するものが確立されたのである。今川了俊(りょうしゅん)の『今川大雙紙(おおぞうし)』（15世紀中ごろ）には武家の礼法についての記事が多いが、「食物の式法の事」「酒についての式法の事」などの項目もある。

　料理の流儀も室町時代に至って確立をみる。平安時代の四条中納言(ちゅうなごん)藤原山蔭(やまかげ)を始祖とする四条流は、宮中・公家方のものであったが、東山時代には武家にも多く取り入れられ大きく前進した。長享(ちょうきょう)3年（1489）の奥書をもつ『四条流包丁書(ほうちょうがき)』も完成した。武家階級では進士(しんじ)流、生間流が鎌倉時代にできたとされるが、この時代に生まれた大草流は、足利政権に重用されたため、東山時代の料理界をリードすることとなった。のち江戸時代に至り、四条流は江戸に移り、町家の祭事・行事食に取り入れられ、料理屋風の豪華な料理もここから芽生えている。大草流は絶えたが、同じ武家料理で大草流に押された進士流は本願寺の料理に残っている。この時代には、料理の材料に区別をつけ、美物と粗物に大別している。魚貝類、鳥類などは多く美物になっており、野菜類は大半が粗物で、なかには美物に入っているものもある。食べる順序も材料によって定められており、まず海の物、山の物、野の物、里の物の順序であるが、海の物ではタイを右翼とする。ただし、コイがある場合にはこれを優先させており、クジラ肉はもっとも右翼に位置するものとしてあった。

　日本料理の儀礼的な食膳(しょくぜん)としては本膳料理がある。これは室町時代にできたものであるが、正確な年次は明らかではない。本膳は何人かで会食する場合に用いるが、その際、同格の人が集まる場合には、膳の高さは35センチメートルぐらいの高足膳を用いる。また、自分より身分の低い者を招く場合には、膳の高さは低くなる。本膳のそばに出すのは二の膳、三の膳というように番号付きの膳で、これにはかならず吸い物が加わることになっている。吸い物のない膳はいくつあっても番号をつけないで、単に側膳(そばぜん)という。祝膳の「式三献(しきさんこん)」「七五三膳」「五三三膳」など各流派による型が、本膳料理の基本をなすものとなった。本膳の複雑な作法は、時代とともに多少の変化はあったが、昭和初期まで続いたのである。

　室町末期にはフランシスコ・ザビエルが鹿児島に渡来し（1549）、キリスト教に帰依(きえ)する人たちは牛肉食なども試みている。松永貞徳(ていとく)の『なぐさみ草』（1652〈慶安5〉自跋）には「キリシタンの日本に入りし時は京衆(きょうしゅう)牛肉をワカと称してもちはやせり」とある。ワカvacaはポルトガル語の牛肉である。

［多田鉄之助］

安土桃山時代

織田信長の日常は戦争に明け暮れていたので、料理に関心がなく上流人の料理の味を知らなかったことは湯浅常山(じょうざん)の『常山紀談』（1739成立）に書いてあるが、兵食はかなり合理化されている。武士、町人、農民の身分制度が確立し、料理も身分に応じて型が決まってきた。桃山時代には、上流社会では華麗なパーティー食などもできている。茶道も盛んになり、千利休(せんのりきゅう)により茶懐石(ちゃかいせき)料理の形式が細かく定められた。16世紀末、文禄(ぶんろく)・慶長(けいちょう)の役後、連行した朝鮮陶工により、陶磁器の製造が始められ、それを用いた料理も研究され、各地で飛躍的に発展したが、豊臣(とよとみ)秀吉の死により、一時中止の形となる。一方、ポルトガル人、スペイン人から伝えられた南蛮料理や南蛮菓子（カステラ、金平糖など）もつくられていた。

［多田鉄之助］

江戸時代

17世紀初頭、徳川家康が江戸幕府を開くや江戸の繁栄は加速度を加え、関東風の日本料理は一つの体系をみるに至った。しかしこれは生(なま)のままの材料を用いる料理が多く、一方の関西料理は技術的に一日の長があり、加熱して仕上げる独自の料理が多く、独自の体系をつくりあげていた。しかし、全国的にみて庶民生活のなかでの料理は程度が低かった。『続兵家茶話(へいかさわ)』に、徳川家康が大浜の長田平左衛門宅を訪れたとき、命じて食べたものは、麦飯に大根の混ぜ塩、いなだの汁、田作り、なます、こんにゃくの煮物であったとある。また、3代将軍家光(いえみつ)の時代に、毛利甲斐守(もうりかいのかみ)らが各自持参の弁当の菜を交換して楽しんでいたが、ある日甲斐守がコイの煮つけを持ってきたところ、珍味だといって皆が喜んで食べたことが『玉箒子(たまははき)』（1696）に出ている。これらの話は、当時の料理の程度が低かったことをうかがわせるものと思う。1635年（寛永12）に参勤交代の制度が定められ、全国諸大名の江戸入りが始まってからは、各地の特産食品が江戸に紹介され、江戸の料理にその影響が出てくる。4代将軍家綱(いえつな)の寛文(かんぶん)年間（1661～1673）に、そば粉をこねて細い線状にした蕎麦切(そばきり)の専門店ができたが、これは現代まで盛業である。季節外れに早くとれた野菜や果物を初物(はつもの)と称して、その味覚を楽しむ風習も現れ、町人の生活がぜいたくな方向に向く。幕府は1686年（貞享3）と1693年（元禄6）の2回にわたり野菜売出しの季節を制定して、事実上の初物売りの禁止をしているが、守りきれてはいなかった。

　料理道が大いに躍進したのは、8代将軍吉宗(よしむね)の享保(きょうほう)（1716～1736）以降である。専門の料理人が出てきたが、本格的な料理屋が江戸に出現したのは1771年（明和8）である。主として諸大名の御留守居役(おるすいやく)なる名称の接待役が、各藩江戸屋敷間の外交折衝の場として利用したので、お留守居茶屋の名称もあった。これに続いて多くのお留守居茶屋ができたが、松平定信(さだのぶ)の寛政(かんせい)の改革（1787～1793）で大半は店を閉ざした。しかし、茶屋の出現によって、作法のやかましい本膳料理から脱して会席料理の基礎ができ、料理屋文化の始まりとなったのである。この間に大きく前進した料理道は、文化・文政（1804～1830）の江戸文化爛熟(らんじゅく)期に著しく向上し、多くの料亭ができた。大田蜀山人(しょくさんじん)は「五歩に一楼、十歩に一閣皆飲食の店ならずといふ事なし」といっている。ただし、天保(てんぽう)の改革（1841～1843）によって多くの料亭は店を閉じ、料理の前進も一時止まるが、まもなく前にまさって繁栄する。

　貿易の中心地長崎では、鎖国下でも中国人やオランダ人との交流によって、洋風・中国風の特徴をミックスした卓袱(しっぽく)料理が生まれ、流行した。「しっぽく」は唐音で、中国風の食卓を覆う布、あるいは食事そのものをさした。一卓を囲んで数人が共食する卓袱料理は、銘々膳の食習慣をもつ日本人にはきわめて目新しく感じられたのであった。また中国から日本に帰化した隠元(いんげん)禅師によって、黄檗(おうばく)宗寺院の精進(しょうじん)料理である普茶(ふちゃ)料理が伝えられ、卓袱料理とも影響しあいながら、会食式の精進料理として普及した。民衆の間には、すし屋、てんぷら屋、そば屋など大衆的な専門料理の店もできた。握りずしは文政（1818～1830）初年に花屋与兵衛によって始められ、今日のすし繁栄の源となったというが、天明(てんめい)（1781～1789）のころに太巻きずしの形態があって、その前触れをなしたものといえよう。肉食の風習は、元禄(げんろく)（1688～1704）の初年に彦根(ひこね)藩で牛肉のみそ漬けができ、幕閣の要人をはじめとする上流人の健康食として用いられた。また庶民には、江戸中期に麹町(こうじまち)、平河町や両国に野獣肉屋（ももんじ屋）ができ、イノシシ、シカ、サル、ウサギなどの肉が楽しめた。

［多田鉄之助］

明治以降

明治に入り日本料理は従来の型をそのまま保持していたが、しだいに時代に適合する内容に変わってきた。文化年間（1804～1818）にできた簡単な宴会料理が、内容を変えて会席料理として出現した。しかし、明治を代表する料理は西洋料理と牛鍋(ぎゅうなべ)である。西洋料理は1872年（明治5）に精養軒(せいようけん)ができてから急進し、それと並んで牛鍋は名物料理になった。関東の牛鍋は関西ですき焼きとして始まり、名称はのちにすき焼きに統一され、代表的な日本料理として発達するのである。おでん、すし、蒲(かば)焼き、そばなどの専門店も多くできた。料理材料にも、外国渡来の野菜類が著しく増え、初めポルトガル語のボーブラの名でよばれたカボチャ、江戸中期に観賞用植物としてサンゴジュナスビ（珊瑚樹茄子）とか唐柿(からがき)とよばれたトマトなどが利用されるようになった。トマトを日本人が食べ始めたのは1877年以降である。ハクサイ、ホウレンソウは明治初年から栽培されていたが、大量生産されだしたのは1907年（明治40）以降である。

　1917年（大正6）から4年間は第一次世界大戦の影響で日本は好景気に恵まれ、料理は著しく飛躍した。料理業界の特色としては、大邸宅が料理店に改造されるケースが多かった。関東・関西の料理の交流も、この時代の特色である。関東の煮込みおでんが「関東炊(だ)き」の名で関西風にアレンジされ、それが関東に逆戻りするなどがその例である。関東大震災（1923）の被害によっても料理に変化がみられた。震災直後に焼け残りの釜(かま)で炊いた飯をじかに釜から食べたことをヒントに、小釜を用いての釜飯が生まれたのもその一例である。

　昭和初年から関西料理が東京に進出し、関東風の日本料理はしだいに後退した。やがて、関西料理は日本料理の主流となり、全国的に広まっていった。1932年（昭和7）ごろ、とんかつの名で洋食のポークカツレットが日本料理の分野に入ってきた。刻みキャベツを添えるのと、揚げてから包丁を入れて食べよくしたのが特色である。のちにはかつ丼(どん)と称する丼物(どんぶりもの)も出現している。太平洋戦争によって食生活は大きく変わり、粉食に重点を置くことが戦後も続いて米の消費量は少なくなった。日本料理で変わらないのは刺身と焼き魚であるが、木炭を使用しないため、きめ細かい焼き物が少なくなった。家庭調理器具の普及に伴い、料理の作り方も変わってきた。とくに、日本料理、西洋料理、中国料理の区別がつけにくくなってきた。すべての料理が結び付き、新しい日本料理が生まれつつあるとみてよいであろう。

［多田鉄之助］

特徴

材料と調理法に季節感を出すことを重要視して、旬(しゅん)の味をたいせつにする。また、材料の持ち味を生かして調理するために、強い香辛料をあまり使わない。そして、ほとんどの料理が主食である米食と日本酒に調和するようにつくられ、発達してきた。すなわち、ご飯のおかず（菜(さい)）であり、酒のさかな（肴・魚）である。「さかな」はもともと酒を飲むときに添えて食べる物「酒菜(さかな)」の意であった。材料としては、「歴史」の項で述べたように、近代以前は獣肉の使用がきわめて少なく、これが日本料理を淡泊な味にする一要因となっている。また獣脂はもとより植物油の使用も少なかった。これらを補ってうま味を出すために案出されたのが、昆布、かつお節など独特の「だし」であった。また、室町後期に始まり江戸時代に普及したしょうゆは、基本的な調味料として、日本料理の味を特徴づける大きな要因ともなった。日本料理は目で見る料理といわれるように、外形の美しさを尊重して、盛付けの技術とか食器との調和をおろそかにしないことが特徴である。日本料理は大別して関西風、関東風に分けられるが、全国各地にそれぞれの気候・風土・産物・行事などから生まれた独特の郷土料理があることも見逃せない。

［多田鉄之助］

分類

（1）形式的特色のあるもの　本膳料理、懐石、卓袱料理、会席料理、弁当形式の料理、丼物など。（2）行事食としてつくるもの　正月料理、節供(せっく)料理、神仏の祭事料理など。（3）地方色の強いもの　郷土料理、雑煮(ぞうに)などの行事食。（4）材料的特色の強いもの　精進料理、川魚料理、山菜料理、卵料理、鳥料理、肉料理など。

［多田鉄之助］

献立

日本料理の献立は、飯、汁、漬物を基準にして発達し、複雑化したものである。日常の献立では、飯、汁、漬物のほかに、主菜となる煮物、揚げ物、焼き物、副菜となる和(あ)え物、おひたしなどを添える。供応料理とされる会席料理の場合、基本的な料理のほかに3～11品まで組み合わせて献立をつくる。材料は、季節を先取りしたはしり物、旬(しゅん)の物、海の物、山の物、鳥獣肉などを調和よく取り合わせて選び、中心をなす料理、中心へと導く料理、あとに余韻をもたせる料理というように盛り上がりや濃淡をつけて献立をつくる。料理の合間には酒を勧め、酒のあとに飯、香の物、果物、菓子、湯を勧めて終わりとするのが普通である。

［多田鉄之助］

食器

古代は木の葉（カシワやユズリハなど大きな木の葉）を用い、次に貝殻、削った白木、素焼の土器を食器とした。飛鳥時代には須恵(すえ)器がつくられ、青銅器や銀器も用いられ、平安時代には中国から漆器が渡来した。鎌倉時代には陶器が急速に発達し、江戸時代には陶磁器が一般的に用いられるようになった。現代は陶磁器を中心に、漆器、ガラス器、金属食器、プラスチック製食器とその種類は広範になってきた。日本料理では原則として1人前盛りで食器の数は多いが、器の形や模様の美しさ、盛付けの美しさを見せるのが、特徴の一つとなっている。器の模様にある花鳥風月などにも心を配り、本格的にはその季節の器としての決まりもある。ただし、現在はあまり形式にこだわらず、とくに家庭では人数や好みにあわせて自由に食器をそろえる風潮がある。日本料理の食器は五客分を単位にして扱うのが常識ではあるが、これも現在の家庭には通用しておらず、和洋兼用の食器も増えている。

［多田鉄之助］

作法

日本料理の食礼式が確立したのは室町中期であるが、内容が複雑で実用的ではないので、一般にはしだいに簡素化されてきた。食事作法の基本は、姿勢を正して音をたてず、主客に食べる速度をあわせて、食べたあとは膳や皿の上を乱雑にせずかたづけておく。箸(はし)使いもいまはさほどやかましくはないが、こみ箸（箸の先で料理を口に押し込む）、移り箸（菜から菜を続けて食べる）、さぐり箸（器の中を箸でかき混ぜて自分の好きなものをとる）、もぎ食い（箸についている食べ物を口でもぎ取る）などは禁止事項であった。

　会席料理では、食膳を運ばれたら会釈し、次客に「お先に」と挨拶(あいさつ)して受け、箸を袋から出して箸置きに置く。割箸は膝(ひざ)の上で、中央を静かに開いて割る。酒は最初の一献は飲めなくても受けるのが礼儀である。前菜は懐紙で受けながら食べ、汁のあるものは器を持ってよい。椀(わん)の蓋(ふた)は椀が右側なら右手でとって右側に置き、左側のときは右手でとって左手に持ち換え、左側に置く。箸は先に器を持ってからとる。一尾付けの魚は目の下から箸をつけ、上身を食べたら中骨を外して下身を食べ、骨は皿の隅にまとめる。串(くし)刺し料理は串を抜いてから食べ、かまぼこなどは歯あとを残さないようにする。器は両手でとってから左手に持ち換える。止め椀やご飯のお代わりは、受け取ったら一度膳に置き、改めて手にとる。最後にお茶を受けたら箸先を洗い、懐紙で清めてから膳に返す。一度に料理が並べられたら、冷めて味の落ちるものから先に食べる。

［多田鉄之助］

『土井勝著『新版基礎日本料理』（1983・柴田書店）』▽『川上行藏編『料理文献解題』（1978・柴田書店）』

[参照項目] | 黄檗料理 | 懐石 | 会席料理 | 川魚料理 | 郷土料理 | 魚料理 | 山菜 | 卓袱料理 | 精進料理 | すし | 卵料理 | 鳥料理 | 肉料理 | 普茶料理 | 本膳料理[補完資料] | 日本料理/おもな調理用語

『酒飯論』にみる武士の食事
室町時代の上級武士の食事。大小の脚付折敷（本膳、二の膳）と左に小さな折敷（三の膳）が並ぶ。本膳には5種の菜に飯と汁、二の膳には3種の菜がのっている。三の膳にも2種の馳走が置かれている。座敷には酒を給仕する女が、銚子を持って控えている。『酒飯論』　模写国立国会図書館所蔵">

『酒飯論』にみる武士の食事

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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