Rice cultivation culture

Japanese: 稲作文化 - いなさくぶんか
Rice cultivation culture

It refers to economic activities, social patterns, beliefs, rituals, and lifestyles that revolve around rice cultivation. Along with wheat, rice cultivation is at the center of agriculture around the world. The percentage of rice-eating people in the world is 50%. This calculation method considers Japanese people, who also eat bread, to be rice-eating people. The percentage of the population that eats wheat is about 35%, and the remaining 15% eat miscellaneous grains and potatoes as their staple food. Worldwide, wheat has a greater production value than rice, but because wheat is used as animal feed, the percentage of the population that uses these as their staple food is as shown here.

Botanically, there are two types of cultivated rice. One is ordinary rice native to East Asia, and the other is Rice glaberrima, which was domesticated in West Africa. There are a few floating-type varieties of Rice glaberrima, but the majority is grown as upland rice and is found in a surprisingly wide area of ​​Africa. However, agriculturally, it is less important than other major crops, the millet. Therefore, there is almost no evidence of a rice cultivation culture based on Rice glaberrima as part of indigenous agriculture or culture in Africa, and Rice glaberrima is considered to be part of the millet culture of Africa.

Oryza sativa , the common rice variety cultivated in East Asia, has long been the mainstay of agriculture in Japan, the Korean peninsula, China (especially southern China), Southeast Asia, India, and Madagascar. In the early modern period, rice has also come to be cultivated on a large scale in other countries outside of Japan, such as Egypt, Italy, and the Americas, and rice is gradually changing from an extreme East Asian crop to a global crop. However, even when rice cultivation occurs worldwide in this way, it does not always become a region with a rice-growing culture. To give an example of this, wheat cultivation and its processed consumption have been widespread in Japan since ancient times, and the country has also invented long, thin dried noodles such as somen, which are unique in other countries, and instant ramen, but Japan cannot be considered a country with a wheat culture, and remains a country with a rice-growing culture.

The concept of rice culture should be applied when the ethnic group in a particular region has been growing and eating rice since ancient times, has appeared in myths, and has developed an agricultural culture centered on rice farming over the years, and is well combined with other cultural elements. In this case, the agricultural culture can be basically defined as the composition of rice varieties, cultivation techniques, harvesting, processing, storage, and cooking methods. Furthermore, as a higher-level composite cultural element, it is necessary to take into account the deep involvement of rice in folk customs and rituals, as well as the social system and politics involved in the production and exploitation of rice in paddy fields. The reason why rice culture is defined as being based on wet rice cultivation and upland rice cultivation is excluded is because upland rice cultivation is not an important agricultural culture layer from a genealogical perspective, and it is appropriate to consider it as belonging to slash-and-burn farming of miscellaneous grains, or the subsequent permanent upland farming of miscellaneous grains.

If we define rice-growing culture narrowly like this and look at the regions where this cultural complex exists, we find that it is found only in a rather limited area in East Asia. These are Japan, the Korean Peninsula, central and southern China, Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Java, parts of Indonesia's outer territories, northeastern Assam in India, Myanmar (Burma), and parts of the central eastern Himalayas, and these are the only rice-growing culture areas. North China, the indigenous people of Taiwan, and Halmahera Island in Indonesia are outside the rice-growing culture. Also, the very large rice-growing areas of India, such as Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Bangladesh, are somewhat different regions in terms of rice-growing culture, and we will consider them later.

When we look at typical rice-growing cultures in the Yayoi period in Japan and in Southeast Asia in Thailand, Malaysia, and Java, we can see the following basic form of rice-growing culture. This is, of course, paddy-paddy rice cultivation, and nowadays all of it is cultivated by transplanting. The original harvesting method was ear-cutting, and this method has remained in Assam, Myanmar, Indonesia, and other countries to this day. Ear-cutting tools are notable for being stone knives (unearthed in Jiangnan, China, during the Yayoi period in Japan) and tools like the Javanese iron-bladed ani-ani, but nowadays there are many examples of sickles with iron blades being used. Ear-cutting does not involve cutting off only the ears, but usually involves cutting off the culms that continue from the ears, leaving them at least 20 centimeters long, and tying the culms together, drying them in the sun, transporting them, and storing them. For transportation, the small bundles are further bundled together and tied together, and then the bundles are either lifted up by inserting the sharp end of a pole into the bundle (Assam, Northern Thailand), or carried overhead (Bali). Storage warehouses are generally high-floor warehouses, and as the harvested and tied bundles are piled up as is, they can only be piled loosely, so high-floor warehouses with a large capacity are required.

The method of storing rice as it is after harvesting requires the creation of a large high-floor storehouse separate from the houses inhabited by the people within the residential area. Such high-floor storehouses existed in the Yayoi period in Japan, and appear in the house-shaped earthenware of Silla on the Korean peninsula. Bronze vessels excavated from Shizhaishan Mountain, near Kunming in Yunnan Province, China, during the Western Han period, clearly show that harvested and tied rice ears were carried overhead and stored in high storehouses. In Java, separate pile-house-type rice storehouses were commonly used until recently, and the high-floor granaries of Toraja on the island of Sulawesi (Celebes), which is at the eastern edge of the rice-growing culture area, are the best examples of high-floor storehouses still in existence. In Assam, while the houses have dirt floors, the storehouses for storing rice husks are pile-houses. In this way, the existence of large high-floor storehouses for storing harvested and bound rice is an indicator of rice-growing culture in the narrow sense. However, even after harvesting the rice, once the rice is threshed and stored in the form of unhulled rice, the volume becomes very small, and the need for large dedicated high-floor storehouses decreases. For this reason, high-floor storehouses have disappeared in most areas today, whether in Japan, China, or Southeast Asia.

Looking at the rice varieties in the narrow rice-growing culture area, they are botanically very complex, but there is one thing that can be easily pointed out. That is, glutinous rice is found throughout the entire area, with 3-5% being glutinous. This is in contrast to the lack of glutinous rice in the vast Indian plains. The frequency of glutinous rice use is such that glutinous rice is commonly used in glutinous rice-exclusive areas such as Laos and neighboring areas, where it is used to make "okowa". However, it is cultivated less frequently in other areas, the westernmost of which is Nepal. This glutinous rice produced less frequently is used for ceremonial purposes (such as Japanese mochi, okowa, and Chinese Labachi porridge on December 8th) and for special processing (such as the raw material for Chinese yellow wine and the bamboo rice dish Lapachi ow in Southeast Asia).

One method is considered to be the basic form of eating the rice that is stored in a high-floor warehouse while still tied together. In this method, several bundles of rice are placed directly into a long wooden mortar and pounded with a wooden stick (vertical pestle), threshing and hulling the rice in one step. This long wooden mortar is known as a horizontal mortar, and in Japan the character for horizontal mortar appears in the Ojinki chapter of the Kojiki, and in China it appears in the stories of the Miao people. In Java, this method was used until recently. The brown rice produced in this way is winnowed and then placed in an ordinary wooden mortar and pounded again to become polished rice, which is then ready for cooking.

Even if you had earthenware, it wasn't easy to make rice from polished rice in the days before you had metal pots. In the present-day Japanese method of boiling rice in an appropriate amount of water from the beginning, the earthenware would burn easily and wear out quickly. With earthenware, you would make rice porridge or boil polished rice in a large amount of water, discard the water, and then steam it a little (the "yutori method"), or put it in a colander and steam it some more (the "nido-meshi method"). One of these methods of making rice can be found in areas with a rice-growing culture, but recently the "takiboshi method" has been gaining popularity in many places.

Besides being eaten as a meal, rice can also be cooked in a variety of ways. When white rice is soaked in water overnight and ground in a mortar, it becomes a mashed-like porridge, which can then be heated and processed into various foods. This porridge-type cooking method can be found in almost all areas of the country that have rice-growing cultures in the narrow sense, although there are some differences. Also, in Japan, Southeast Asia, northeastern India, and the Himalayan region, roasted rice is made by harvesting immature ears of rice (mainly glutinous rice), heating the unhulled rice, and pounding it in a mortar.

As described above, rice-growing culture in the narrow sense has a commonality of basic complexity, and also has various cultural phenomena that are socially superior complexities. In Japan, the Tai people and some ethnic minorities in southern China, Southeast Asia (excluding Vietnam), Myanmar, and other areas, peasants' homes are built on piles or with raised floors. Rice-growing rituals have also evolved in great diversity, and most of the festivals at Japanese shrines originate from rice-growing rituals. Rice-growing agriculture also has a structure that fundamentally regulates the social systems and politics of these regions.

Bengal, the western half of Assam, Bangladesh, Bihar, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and other parts of India are very large rice-growing regions, but when we look at the cultures there, we find that many of the elements of rice-growing culture in the narrow sense are missing. A common feature of this region is that rice cultivation is strongly influenced by wheat culture. There are no raised rice barns in India, and threshing is done by making cows walk on a threshing floor and threshing the rice with their hooves. This method was developed as a method of threshing wheat since the Neolithic period, and in India it is also used for rice. For polishing, a foot-operated machine, probably introduced from China, is used. Rice is mainly prepared by the boiling method, and cooking methods other than rice are rarely seen, with some exceptions. There are few rice-growing rituals, and the social structure is also little influenced by rice cultivation.

Thus, if there is a rice culture in the rice-growing regions of India, it is quite different from rice culture in the narrow sense. However, considering the area and population, Indian rice culture cannot be ignored. There are two cultural historical interpretations. One is that it developed on the periphery of rice culture in India, and therefore lacked many elements of rice culture, while at the same time being strongly influenced by wheat culture. The other interpretation is that there was another ancient layer of early rice culture before the establishment of East Asian rice culture in the narrow sense, and India represents this. Based on this second hypothesis, it can be assumed that a very similar early rice culture existed in China in a very ancient period. This issue must be left to the field of archaeology.

[Sasuke Nakao]

"Continuation of Evergreen Broadleaf Forest Culture" by Kamiyama Shunpei and others (Chuko Shinsho)""Before Rice Cultivation" by Sasaki Takaaki (NHK Books)""The Road to Rice" by Watanabe Tadayo (NHK Books)"The Genealogy of Japanese Culture" by Nakao Sasuke and Kamiyama Shunpei (1982, Tokuma Shoten)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

稲作をめぐって展開される経済活動や社会様式、信仰や儀礼、生活態度などを意味する。稲の栽培は小麦とともに全世界の農業の中心になっている。全世界における米食民の比率は50%である。これはパンも食べている日本人も米食民とした計算の仕方である。小麦食の人口比率は約35%で、残りの15%は雑穀、いも類主食民である。全世界では小麦のほうが米より生産額は大きいが、小麦は飼料に使われているので、これらを主食とした人口比はこのようになった。

 栽培稲は植物学的に2種ある。その一つは東アジア原産の通常の稲であり、他の一つは西アフリカで栽培化されたグラベリマ稲である。グラベリマ稲は、栽培上では少しの浮稲(うきいね)型品種があるが、大部分は陸稲としてアフリカで案外広い地域でみられる。しかし農業上は他の主作である雑穀類より重要度は低い。したがってアフリカの在来農業、在来文化として、グラベリマ稲による稲作文化というものはほとんど認められず、グラベリマ稲はアフリカの雑穀文化のなかに位置している。

 東アジアで栽培化された普通の稲Oryza sativaは古くから、日本、朝鮮半島、中国(とくに華南)、東南アジア、インドおよびマダガスカルなどで農業上の主力となってきた。近世になってから、稲はそれより外部のエジプト、イタリア、アメリカ大陸などでも大規模に栽培されるようになって、稲は東アジアの極地的作物から全世界的な作物へとなりつつある。しかしこのように全世界的に稲作がおこっても、そこがつねに稲作文化地域とはならない。これを例えてみれば、日本では小麦の栽培とその加工食用は古くから普及し、そうめんのような他国に類のない細長い乾麺(かんめん)や、インスタントラーメンのような発明もしているが、日本は小麦文化の国とみることはできず、依然として稲作文化の国である。

 稲作文化の概念構成としては、特定地域の民族が古くから水稲作、米食をしており、神話のなかから登場し、多年の累積として農耕文化が水稲農業を中軸として展開し、他の文化要素とよく複合した場合に適用すべきであろう。この場合、農耕文化としては、稲の品種群の構成、栽培技術上の慣行、収穫、加工、貯蔵、さらに料理法などがまず基本的に指摘できる。さらに高次複合文化要素としては、民俗、儀礼などにおける稲のかかわり度の深さ、また水田稲作の生産、収奪などにかかわった社会体制、政治に複合した点まで考慮に入れる必要がある。このように稲作文化を水稲作によるものとし、陸稲作の場合を除外したのは、陸稲作は系譜的にみて重要な農耕文化層でなく、雑穀焼畑農耕、またはそれに続いた雑穀常畑農耕に属するものとみなすのが適当であるからである。

 さてこのように稲作文化を狭義的に規定して、その文化複合のある地域をみると、東アジアでもやや限られた地域にのみみいだされる。それは日本、朝鮮半島、中国の中部以南、タイ、フィリピン、マレーシア、ジャワおよびインドネシアの外領の一部、インドのアッサムの北東部およびミャンマー(ビルマ)と東ヒマラヤ中腹部の一部で、これらのみが稲作文化地帯である。中国の華北、台湾の先住民、インドネシアのハルマヘラ島は稲作文化の外になる。また非常に大きい稲作地帯であるインドのベンガル、ビハール、オリッサ、バングラデシュなどは、稲作文化としてはやや異なった地域であるので、その考察はあとで述べることにする。

 典型的な稲作文化を日本の弥生(やよい)時代や東南アジアのタイ、マレーシア、ジャワなどでみると、稲作文化の基本形として次のような様相がみられる。それはもちろん水田稲作で、現在はそのすべてが移植栽培の田植になっている。収穫は穂刈りが原形で、アッサム、ミャンマー、インドネシアなどでは穂刈り法が現在まで残ってきている。穂刈り用具は石包丁(日本の弥生時代、中国の江南で出土)やジャワの鉄刃をつけたアニアニのような道具が著しいが、いまでは鉄の刃をつけた鎌(かま)の使用例も多い。穂刈りは穂だけを切り取るのでなく、通常は穂に続く稈(かん)を20センチメートル以上つけて切り取り、稈の部分を束ねて結束し、そのまま天日乾燥し、輸送、貯蔵する。その輸送には、小束をさらに束ねて結び、その中に先端のとがった天秤棒(てんびんぼう)の先端を差し込んで担ぎ上げたり(アッサム、北タイ)、または頭上運搬をする(バリ島)。貯蔵倉庫は高床倉庫が原則であって、倉庫の中には、穂刈りして結束したものをそのまま積み上げるので、ふんわりとしか積み上げられず、したがって高床倉庫の容積は大きなものが必要になる。

 穂刈りでそのまま貯蔵する方式では、住居地内に人の住む家屋と別に、大きな高床倉庫をもつ必要が生じてくる。この高床倉庫は日本の弥生時代にあり、朝鮮半島では新羅(しらぎ)の家形土器のなかに出現する。中国では雲南省の昆明(こんめい)近くの前漢時代の石寨山(せきさいざん)出土の青銅器から、穂刈り結束した稲穂を頭上運搬し、高倉に収めていたことが明らかである。ジャワでは最近まで別棟の杭上(こうじょう)家屋型の稲倉が常用されており、また稲作文化圏の東端となるスラウェシ(セレベス)島のトラジャの高床穀倉は現存する最高の高床倉庫の建築物となっている。またアッサムでは住居は土間であるのに、稲籾(いねもみ)を収める倉庫は杭上家屋になっている。このように、穂刈り結束したものをそのまま収納する大形の高床倉庫の存在は、狭義の稲作文化の指標となる。しかし、穂刈りしても、根刈りしても、その粒を脱穀して籾の形にして貯蔵するようになると、容積が非常に少なくなるので、専用の大きな高床倉庫の必要性は少なくなってくる。そのため、日本でも中国でも東南アジアでも、現在はほとんどの地域で高床倉庫は消失してしまっている。

 狭義の稲作文化地帯の稲の品種群をみると、植物学的には非常に複雑であるが、ただ一つ簡単に指摘できる点がある。それはこの全地域に糯米(もちごめ)がみられ、3~5%が糯になっていることである。この点は、広大なインド平野部の稲作に糯が欠けていることと対照的である。糯の使用頻度は、ラオスおよびその近傍地域の、糯米専用地地帯で「おこわ」を常用する場合がある。しかし、その他の地域では低頻度で栽培され、その西端はネパールである。この低頻度で生産される糯米は、儀礼用(日本の餅(もち)、おこわ、中国の12月8日の臘八粥(ろうはちがゆ)など)や特殊加工用(中国の黄酒原料、東南アジアの竹筒でつくる飯ラーパチオウなど)に使用されている。

 高床倉庫に穂刈りを結束したまま貯蔵されたものを食べるのに、一つの方式が基礎形と考えられる。それは、穂刈りの束をいくつか、そのまま横長の木臼(きうす)に入れて、木の棒(竪杵(たてぎね))で搗(つ)き、一行程で脱穀と籾摺(もみす)りをする方法である。この横長の木臼はいわゆる横臼で、日本では『古事記』の応神(おうじん)記に横臼の字があり、中国ではミャオ族の説話のなかに登場する。ジャワでは最近までこの方法が用いられた。こうしてできた玄米は、風選してから普通の木臼に入れてふたたび搗くと精白米となり、料理の準備ができたことになる。

 土器はあっても金属製の鍋(なべ)がない段階では、白米から飯をつくることは簡単ではない。いまの日本のように初めから適量の水で煮立てて飯をつくる炊き干し法では土器が焦げ付きやすく、その消耗が大きくなる。土器では粥か、あるいは多量の水で白米をゆで、湯を捨ててから少し蒸す(湯取り法)、あるいはざるに入れてさらに蒸す(二度飯法)によることになる。これらの製飯法は稲作文化地帯にはいずれかがみられるが、最近は炊き干し法が多くの場所で普及しつつある。

 米は飯にする粒食以外に、いろいろな料理法がある。白米を一夜水に浸し、摺臼でひくとマッシュ状の粢(しとぎ)となり、それを加熱加工するといろいろの形の食品となる。この粢型の料理法は狭義の稲作文化地帯のほとんど全地域に、多少の差はあってもみられる。また未熟穂(おもに糯を用いる)を収穫し、籾のまま加熱してから臼で搗(つ)いてつくる焼き米は日本、東南アジア、インド北東部、ヒマラヤ地域にある。

 以上のように狭義の稲作文化は基本的な複合の共通性のうえに、社会的に上位の複合をした文化現象がいろいろある。日本、中国南部のタイ族や一部の少数民族、東南アジア(ベトナムを除く)、ミャンマーなどでは、農民の住居は杭上家屋または高床家屋になっている。また稲作に伴う儀礼が非常に多様に展開しており、日本の神社の祭礼のほとんどは稲作儀礼に起源している。また稲作農業は、これら地域の社会体制や政治を基本的に規制する構造をとっている。

 インドのベンガル、アッサムの西半分、バングラデシュ、およびビハール、オリッサ、タミル・ナド、ケララなどは非常に大きい稲作地帯であるが、そこの文化をみると、狭義の稲作文化の要素の多くが欠けている。この地域で共通にみられることは、稲作が小麦文化の影響を強く受けていることである。インドには稲の高倉はなく、脱穀はスレッシング・フロア(脱穀床)の上で牛を歩かせ、そのひづめで脱穀する。これは新石器以来の麦の脱穀法としてできたもので、インドでは稲にもその方法を使っている。精白は多分中国から伝播(でんぱ)した足踏み機を使っている。飯をつくるには、おもに湯取り法によっており、米の飯以外の料理法は例外を除いてほとんどみられない。稲作儀礼は少なく、社会体制も稲作の影響は少ない。

 このように、インドの稲作地帯に稲作文化があるとすれば、それは狭義の稲作文化とだいぶ異なったものである。しかしインド稲作文化は面積と人口からみて無視できない存在である。その文化史的解釈には二つある。一つは、インドでは稲作文化の周辺部に展開し、そのため稲作文化の多くの要素を欠除し、一方では麦文化の強い影響を受けた結果とみなすことである。もう一つの解釈は、狭義の東アジアの稲作文化の成立の前の、もう一つ古層の前期稲作文化というものがあって、インドはそれを代表するとの仮説である。この第二の仮説にたつと、中国にも非常に古い時代に、よく似た前期稲作文化の存在の推定ができる。この問題は考古学の分野に任すほかはない。

[中尾佐助]

『上山春平他著『続照葉樹林文化』(中公新書)』『佐々木高明著『稲作以前』(NHKブックス)』『渡辺忠世著『稲の道』(NHKブックス)』『中尾佐助・上山春平著『日本文化の系譜』(1982・徳間書店)』

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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