Seal carving - Tenkoku

Carving seals for non-practical purposes, such as signature seals for paintings and calligraphy. This refers to the act of carving seals that literati and artists do themselves, rather than leaving it to craftsmen.

In China, seals have been used since ancient times, but they were most widely used and developed during the Han dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD). Around the 11th century (Song dynasty), a new academic field (epigraphy) that studied ancient bronze vessels and inscriptions arose, and Han seals became the subject of study and appreciation. Eventually, like literature, calls for a revival of seals came to be made. In the 15th century (Ming dynasty), a beautiful stone material that was easy to carve was discovered, and unlike traditional ivory, it became easy for amateurs to carve, so literati competed to carve them, just like calligraphy and painting. As a result, new realms not found in craftsmanship were developed, just like in the case of literati painting. Then, after passing through the hands of many excellent literati, seals came to be highly regarded, to the point that they were called poetry, calligraphy, and painting. Its founders were Wen Peng (1498-1573) and He Zhen (date of birth and death unknown) in the mid-Ming period. In the Qing period, Ding Jing (1695-1765) and others brought further development to the study of Han seals. They came to be known as the "Zhejiang School" after the elegant name of his hometown, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. The Qing period was also the period when epigraphy was perfected, and seal carving flourished accordingly. Masters such as Deng Shiru, Wu Ranzhi, and Zhao Zhiqian appeared one after another, and Wu Changshuo, who was active from the end of the Qing period to the beginning of the Republic of China, was the last great master of old China and also had a great influence on Japan. Seal carving continued to flourish in new China, and artists such as Qi Baishi were given preferential treatment as "people's artists."

It was introduced to Japan in the early Edo period along with Ming culture, and some artists, such as Gao Fuyou, even went so far as to study ancient seals, but it was not until the Meiji period, when new trends were introduced at the end of the Qing, that noteworthy artists began to appear. Nakamura Randai I and Kawai Senro were two masters who were active around this time. Senro was influenced by Wu Changshuo and perfected a sophisticated style that has been projected into the world of modern seal carving. Yamada Shohei (1899-1951) also studied under him for a time. Nakamura Randai II created a style completely different from his father's, and along with Yamada, is one of the most highly acclaimed artists of recent times. Both were judges for seal carving at the Nitten Exhibition. In modern China, the moderate style that has been prevalent since the Qing Dynasty seems to be mainstream, but in Japan, free-spirited expression is in vogue, especially at exhibitions, and this appears to be due to the influence of these two artists.

Since it started as an amateur job, the material used is aromatic stone, and the carving is done with only a single double-edged knife called an "iron pen," without much finesse. Not only is the surface of the seal appreciated, but the seal carved into the side, called a "side seal," is also considered important. The wide variety of stone materials, along with the "buttons," which evolved from simple "knobs" to beautiful small carvings, have made the seal materials themselves a favorite subject for hobbyists, and "seal books," which are booklets that collect the works of famous seal makers, are independently studied and appreciated, and have many collectors.

[Fushimi Okiyoshi]

"Complete Calligraphy Collection, Supplementary Volume I: Seal Collection of China" and "Complete Calligraphy Collection, Supplementary Volume II: Seal Collection of Japan" (1968, Heibonsha)" ▽ "Chinese Seals" by Luo Fuyi, translated by Ando Sarao (1965, Nigensha)" ▽ "Seals and Seals" by Luo Fuyi, translated by Kitagawa Hirokuni et al. (1982, Nigensha)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

書画の落款(らっかん)印など、実用以外の趣味的な印を彫ること。とくに職人に任せず、文人墨客が自分でやることをいう。

　中国では古代から印章が用いられたが、もっとも盛んに使われ、発達したのは漢代（前202～後220）であった。11世紀ごろ（宋(そう)代）から古代の銅器や碑文を研究する新しい学問（金石学(きんせきがく)）がおこって、漢代の印章も研究や鑑賞の対象とされるようになり、やがて文学と同じように、印章にも復古が唱えられるようになる。15世紀（明(みん)代）になると、彫りやすくて美しい石材が発見されて、従来の象牙(ぞうげ)などと異なり、アマチュアにも容易にできるようになったので、書や画と同様、文人が競ってこれを手がけるようになった。その結果、職人芸にない新しい境地が開拓されたことは、文人画の場合と同様である。そして、多くの優れた文人の手を経て、やがて詩、書、画と併称されるほどの、高い評価を得るに至った。明中期の文彭(ぶんほう)（1498―1573）、何震(かしん)（生没年不詳）らはその創始者である。清(しん)代になると、丁敬(ていけい)（1695―1765）らによって、漢印の研究によるさらに新しい発展をみる。彼の出身地の浙江(せっこう)省杭州(こうしゅう)の雅名にちなんで「浙派(せっぱ)」とよばれる一大勢力をなすに至る。清代はまた金石学完成の時期でもあり、篆刻もそれに伴いいっそう興隆し、鄧石如(とうせきじょ)、呉譲之(ごじょうし)、趙之謙(ちょうしけん)らの名手が相次いで現れ、清代末期から中華民国の初年にかけて活躍した呉昌碩(ごしょうせき)は旧中国の最後を飾る大家であり、また日本への影響も大きかった。新中国でも篆刻はなお盛んに行われて、斉白石(さいはくせき)のごときは「人民芸術家」として優遇されていた。

　日本には江戸時代の初期に明朝文化とともに伝えられ、高芙蓉(こうふよう)のように古印の研究にまで手を伸ばした人物も現れたが、作家として注目すべきものが現れるのは明治になって清末の新傾向の導入まで持ち越される。初代中村蘭台(らんたい)と河井荃廬(せんろ)はこの時期に前後して活躍した大家である。荃廬は呉昌碩の影響を受けて精緻(せいち)な作風を完成し、それを現代の篆刻界にまで投影した。山田正平(しょうへい)（1899―1951）も一時その教えを受けた。2世中村蘭台は父とはまったく異なる様式を独創し、山田とともに近年でもっとも高く評価された作家である。ともに日展の篆刻の審査員であった。現代の中国では清朝以来の穏健な作風が主流をなしているようであるが、日本では自由奔放な表現が、とくに展覧会などでは流行しており、それにはこの2人の影響があるようにみえる。

　アマチュアの仕事として出発したものであるから、材料は蝋石(ろうせき)系の石を用い、彫るのには「鉄筆」とよばれる両刃の小刀1本だけで、あまり小細工をせずに仕上げる。押す印面を鑑賞するばかりでなく、側面に彫られた落款は「側款(そくかん)」とよばれ、これも重要視される。そして、単なる「つまみ」から発達して美しい小彫刻となった「鈕(ちゅう)」とともに、石材の多種多様なことは、印材そのものも別に趣味家の愛玩(あいがん)するところとなり、また名家の作品を押し集めて冊子とした「印譜(いんぷ)」は独立して研究・鑑賞の対象とされ、収集家も多い。

［伏見冲敬］

『神田喜一郎他編『書道全集別巻Ⅰ　印譜・中国』『書道全集別巻Ⅱ　印譜・日本』（1968・平凡社）』▽『羅福頤著、安藤更生訳『中国の印章』（1965・二玄社）』▽『羅福頤著、北川博邦他訳『印と印人』（1982・二玄社）』

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