Spirit (Greek: nūs)

Japanese: 精神 - せいしん(英語表記)nūs ギリシア語
Spirit (Greek: nūs)

(1) In a broad sense, it is synonymous with mind or soul, and refers to something immaterial and active. The human mind is understood as the bearer of abilities such as sensation, understanding, imagination, will, and value evaluation, or as these mental functions themselves. It is usually ascribed properties such as having no spatial extent or location, being simple and indivisible, maintaining its self-identity while changing over time, and not obeying physical laws, and is sometimes claimed to be substantial and immortal. (2) In philosophy, it often refers to the higher mental abilities and reason related to the recognition of truth, morality, and art. (3) It can also be elevated to a supra-personal global principle such as the spirit of the age or the spirit of a nation.

[Kenichiro Fujisawa]

History of the concept of mind

The concept of the mind varies significantly depending on the era, the nation, and the ideological position. (1) In ancient times, the mind was thought to be like air or fire that resides in the body, and to leave the body at death. In addition, the animistic worldview, which holds that all things have mental properties, was widely seen, and it was thought that a mind (spirit) separate from material things exists and controls the movement of nature, which developed into the concept of God in mythology and religion. (2) In Greek philosophy, the mind was elevated to an ontological principle that orders the world (Anaxagoras' nous), and was thought of as an eternal and immortal entity that can be united with ideas (Plato), but generally the mind is considered to be one of the things within the world. (3) Since the early modern period, the mind has been considered to be a creative subject that has self-consciousness and can freely define itself, and has played an important role in thought. It was Descartes who first established the modern concept of the mind. According to him, the mind is a substance whose primary attribute is thinking, and matter is an entity whose primary attribute is extension. The two are existentially distinct and do not depend on each other. This dualism is in keeping with the attitude of modern natural science, which takes the whole of nature as its object and places the cognitive subject outside the connections between objects. Subsequent philosophies, based on Cartesian dualism, sought to overcome dualism itself by refining and developing the concept of spirit, but it was Hegel who achieved a degree of completion in this direction. From the idealist standpoint that everything that exists and moves is spirit, he constructed a grand system in which he argued that spirit develops through three stages: (1) the idea that shows the structural framework of the world, (2) nature as the external state of the idea, and (3) the process of returning to itself in history in the form of the world spirit and the spirit of nations.

[Kenichiro Fujisawa]

Modern trends

(1) Ideological theory and psychoanalysis deny the independence and purity of the mind. (2) In new theories of human machinery such as cybernetics and behaviorism, which sees mental phenomena as behavior or its potential abilities, there is a strong tendency to try to eliminate the independent mind. These movements were born out of reflection on modern ways of thinking, but establishing a new concept of the mind is a challenge for the modern intellectual world.

[Kenichiro Fujisawa]

"De Anima (On the Soul)" translated by Muraji Yoshinari (included in "The Great Ideas of the World: Aristotle", 1966, Kawade Shobo Shinsha)""De Anima (On the Soul)" translated by Yamamoto Mitsuo (included in "The Complete Works of Aristotle, Volume 6", 1968, Iwanami Shoten)""Meditations" by Descartes, translated by Miki Kiyoshi (Iwanami Bunko)""The Collected Works of Descartes, Volume 2, translated by Tokoro Yuaki et al. (1973, Hakusuisha)""Phenomenology of Spirit" translated by Kashiyama Kinshiro (included in "The Great Ideas of the World: Hegel", 1973, Kawade Shobo Shinsha)""Phenomenology of Spirit" by Descartes, translated by Kaneko Musashi, 2 volumes (1971, 79, Iwanami Shoten)""Philosophy of the Mind" by Schaffer, translated by Yoshio Shimizu (1971, Baifukan) " "The Mind-Body Problem" by Shozo Omori et al. (1980, Sangyo Tosho)

[References] | Idealism | Thought | Zeitgeist | Mind-Body Problem | World Spirit | Reason

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

(1)広い意味では心や魂と同義で、非物質的な活動的なものをさす。人間の精神は感覚、理解、想像、意欲、価値評価などの能力の担い手としてか、それともこうした心的機能そのものとして解される。通例、空間的広がりや位置をもたない、単純で不可分である、時間的に変化しながらも自己同一性を保つ、物理法則には従わない、などの性質が帰せられ、ときには実体性や不滅性が主張される。(2)哲学では多くの場合、真理認識・道徳・芸術にかかわる高次の心的能力、理性をさす。(3)さらに時代精神、民族精神などのような超個人的な世界的原理にまで高められることもある。

[藤澤賢一郎]

精神の概念の歴史

精神の概念は時代や民族、思想的立場の違いに応じて著しく変わる。(1)古代では精神は身体に宿る空気や火のようなものであり、死によって身体から離れるとされた。またすべてのものが心的性質を備えるとするアニミズム的世界観が広くみられるとともに、物質的なものから離れた精神(霊)が存在して自然の運行をつかさどると考えられ、神話や宗教の神概念へと発展した。(2)ギリシア哲学では世界を秩序づける存在論的原理に高められたり(アナクサゴラスのヌース)、イデアと合一しうる永遠不滅の存在者と考えられたり(プラトン)したが、おおむね精神は世界内のものの一つとされる。(3)近世以降では、精神は自己意識を備え、自由に自己自身を規定する創造的な主体とみなされ、思想的に重要な役割を果たしてきた。近代的な精神の概念を初めて確立したのはデカルトである。彼によれば精神は思考を、物体は延長を主要属性とする実体である。両者は実在的に区別され、互いに他方に依存しない。この二元論は、自然全体を対象とし、認識主観を対象の連関の外に据える近代自然科学の態度によく合致する。以後の哲学はデカルト的二元論を基盤にしながら精神の概念を洗練・発展させて二元論自身を克服しようとしたが、この方向でいちおうの完成をみるのはヘーゲルにおいてである。彼は、存在し運動するものすべてが精神であるとする観念論の立場から、精神が、〔1〕世界の構造的枠組みを示す理念、〔2〕理念の外在態としての自然、〔3〕歴史において世界精神・民族精神という形態をとって自己自身へと還(かえ)る過程、という三段階を通じて発展する、と説いて壮大な体系を築いた。

[藤澤賢一郎]

現代の傾向

(1)イデオロギー論や精神分析では、精神の自立性・純粋性が否定される。(2)サイバネティックスなどの新しい人間機械論や、心的現象を行動もしくはその潜在的能力としてとらえる行動主義では、独立した精神を消去しようとする傾向が強い。――これらの動きは近代的な考え方に対する反省から生まれたものであるが、精神の新しい概念を確立することは現代の思想界の課題である。

[藤澤賢一郎]

『村治能就訳『デ・アニマ(霊魂論)』(『世界の大思想 アリストテレス』所収・1966・河出書房新社)』『山本光雄訳『デ・アニマ(霊魂論)』(『アリストテレス全集 第6巻』所収・1968・岩波書店)』『デカルト著、三木清訳『省察』(岩波文庫)』『所雄章他訳『デカルト著作集 第2巻』(1973・白水社)』『樫山欽四郎訳『精神現象学』(『世界の大思想 ヘーゲル』所収・1973・河出書房新社)』『デカルト著、金子武蔵訳『精神の現象学』全2冊(1971、79・岩波書店)』『シャッファー著、清水義夫訳『こころの哲学』(1971・培風館)』『大森荘蔵他著『心―身の問題』(1980・産業図書)』

[参照項目] | 観念論 | 思考 | 時代精神 | 心身問題 | 世界精神 | 理性

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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