Sweden - Suweden (English spelling)

Japanese: スウェーデン - すうぇーでん（英語表記）Sweden

A constitutional kingdom occupying the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula in northern Europe. It has an area of 450,295 square kilometers, and a population of 9,081,000 (UN estimate in 2006), 9,276,509 (as of the end of April 2009). Its capital is Stockholm. In Swedish it is called Sverige, which means "Land of the Swedes". Its official name is the Kingdom of Sweden (Konungariket Sverige). Its national anthem, "Det Gamla, det Fria" (Homeland, Freedom), sings of the freedom-loving national character of the Swedes. The Swedes, known as Vikings from around the 9th century, were a maritime people who made expeditions in search of trade, but they settled in Scandinavia around the 10th century with the spread of Christianity. In the Middle Ages, Stockholm, Kalmar, and other cities joined the Hanseatic League and saw commercial development, but politically, Denmark was threatened by the rule of the Danish king under the Kalmar Union (a personal union of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden). Denmark gained independence in 1523 under King Gustav Vasa (Gustav I). Since welcoming Bernadotte (Charles XIV) as crown prince from France in 1810, Denmark has maintained neutrality and peace in both the First and Second World Wars. By utilizing iron ore, forests, and water resources and through the steady efforts of its people, Denmark once maintained the second highest per capita national income in the world after the United States. Although the economy stagnated after the 1973 oil crisis, Denmark's per capita gross national income (GNI) is still relatively high among the member states of the EU (European Union), and Denmark is a welfare state that maintains a high standard of living. While the country takes a unique position in international diplomacy by upholding neutrality and humanitarianism, its people are calm and full of creativity, and it is also a cultured nation that has produced many scientists, including Nobel Prize winners.

[Koko Nakajima]

Nature

Sweden occupies the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and except for its southwestern part facing the strait leading to the North Sea, it faces the inland Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia. The country is long and narrow, stretching 1,574 km from north to south, and the northern part is inside the Arctic Circle, but half of it lies south of the 60th parallel.

[Masahide Shiki]

Topography and geology

In the northwestern part along the Norwegian border, the Scandinavian Mountains run from Norway, and in the north, the Sarek massif (2,090 meters) and Sweden's highest peak, Kebnekaisse (2,123 meters), are high, exceeding 2,000 meters. The Scandinavian Mountains are a folded mountain range of Paleozoic strata caused by the Caledonian orogeny of the Paleozoic era, and are connected to the Baltic Shield on the east by a fault that overturns it, and the border is called the Glint Line. The Baltic Shield is made up of rocks from the Archean and Proterozoic eras, the oldest on Earth, and it accounts for 80% of the country's land area. It is mainly made up of granite, gneiss, and crystalline schist, and has a complex geological structure that has been subjected to significant metamorphism by several mountain-building movements before the Paleozoic era.

Most of the Baltic Shield is the Norrland Plateau, 500-200 meters high and inclined southeast, which stretches from north to south on the eastern side of the mountain range and occupies half of the country. South of the Norrland Plateau is the Swedish Central Lowland, which includes the three great lakes of Vänern, Vättern, and Mälaren, and to the south of that is the Småland Plateau (270 meters), which rises in elevation again, and the southern edge is the Skåne Lowland, a peneplain that cuts off the Mesozoic layer. During the Pleistocene (Pleistocene) ice age, the entire area was covered by the Fennoscandian ice sheet, centered on the Gulf of Bothnia. The ice sheet melted about 10,000 years ago, leaving clearly visible mounds and depressions in the bedrock eroded by glacial erosion, which form the basis of the topography. Sediments derived from glaciers, such as moraines and eskers, are arranged in relation to the direction of the ice flow and cover the topography. The depressions are filled with numerous lakes, marshes and wetlands, and the inland water surface area accounts for 10% of the total land area. Rivers such as the Dal and Král connect these lakes, and the river valleys of Norrland are in the early stages of development, running parallel to each other from the northwest to the southeast. After the ice melted, the sea level rose temporarily and intruded, but the ground continued to rise at a rate of several millimeters per year due to isostasy, leaving traces of the transgression up to 260 meters. The resulting clay coastal plains provide fertile farmland along the coast. Except for these plains and in the region of Scania, the soil is poor as a result of the erosion of the ice sheet stripping away the topsoil. The rocks of the Baltic Shield contain iron, copper, lead and other ores, which are being mined in the Kiruna area in the north and the Bergeslagen area in the central part of the country.

[Masahide Shiki]

Climate and vegetation

The climate is somewhat continental, with monthly average summer temperatures ranging from 15°C in July in the north to 17°C in the south, although farmland in the north is subject to summer frost. Winter temperatures vary widely, from -1°C in February in the southwest to -12°C in the north.

The vegetation season is 240 days in the south and 100 days in the north, and the Gulf of Bothnia freezes over for several months in the north, resulting in cold weather. The low salinity of the region also makes the bay prone to freezing. Precipitation is slightly higher in summer but is fairly even throughout the year, with snowfall in winter. Due to the rain shadow effect of the Scandinavian mountains, the annual precipitation is less than 500 mm in the northeast, but exceeds 700 mm in the southwest, where it is not affected. Precipitation increases with height, reaching about 2000 mm in the mountains near the Norwegian border. Wheat grows in the southern tip, but not in the central lowlands and north of the region, where barley and pasture are the main crops. Sweden's forest area exceeds 50% of the country's land area, and it belongs to the high-latitude coniferous forest zone following the Siberian taiga (coniferous forest zone), and is mainly made up of Norway fir and Scots pine, with some birch and poplar added in. Small glaciers remain in the mountains, and tundra (permafrost zone) can be seen, while the southwestern coast is home to deciduous broadleaf forests including beech.

[Masahide Shiki]

Geography

Sweden is generally divided into three major regions: Götaland in the south, Svealand in the middle, and Norrland in the north, whose names come from the fact that they were inhabited by different tribes in ancient times. In addition to this division, the border between the cultural regions of Sweden, which is based on ethnological considerations, is the line connecting the mouth of the Dal River and the northern shore of Lake Vänern, which divides Sweden into north and south. Topographically, this border also coincides with the end of the Scandinavian mountain range, and there are differences between the north and south.

Before industrialization, the northern part of the country had a small area of cultivated land, and people mainly made a living from dairy farming, forestry, and hunting. The cold climate was suitable for growing rye and barley, so people ate hard bread made without yeast and yogurt-like milk. As men were away from home working in the forest or hunting, dairy farming was the work of women. The custom of spouse selection, similar to that of youth hostels in Japan, was a social custom permitted in this region before the spread of railways, and as the area is rich in coniferous forests, the architectural style used was a wooden frame similar to the Azekura style. The Sami people, who live in the mountains and tundra of the far north towards neighboring Finland, follow reindeer to the coast in winter and the mountains in summer, and have a unique language and culture that differs from the North Germanic Swedes.

In contrast, the southern part of Sweden has a large cultivated area, a warm climate except for the Småland region in southern Sweden, wheat is produced, and the culture of yeast-based bread is said to be great. The architectural style is also wooden pillars and clay walls, and there are many large farmers in the southern region of Scania, so marriages were also arranged by matchmaker, with consideration given to wealth.

In addition, regional differences have arisen due to the influence of historical borders. Southern Gothenburg was part of Denmark until 1660, so Danish influence remains in the language and customs. Furthermore, the area centered around Gothenburg has long been influenced by British and Dutch culture, while the east coast area centered around Stockholm is influenced by Eastern European countries and Germany. The two regions form the border between Western and Eastern European culture, and differences remain in terms of urban formation and annual events. Although the differences between these cultural spheres are gradually being equalized through the development of transportation and communication networks, even in the 20th century, characteristics were evident in the way new information was transmitted, such as the mechanization of agriculture.

Looking at regional characteristics of industrial development, commerce and industry developed around the cities of Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Malmö, agriculture in the south, forestry in the north, and Svealand in the center, which is an intermediate region showing characteristics of both. The north has a well-developed pulp and paper industry that makes use of water and forest resources in the coastal region, and is also rich in iron ore resources, but because it is far from Western European markets, growth has been sluggish despite the government's policy of attracting industry, and population outflow has become an issue.

[Koko Nakajima]

history

It was only from around the 14th century that Swedes began to record their history in the form of chronicles; to learn about their history before that, we must rely on archaeological sources, runic inscriptions, and documents written on the European continent (such as the writings of the Roman Tacitus and the Gothic Jordanes).

[Haruki Homma]

Primitive and ancient

Humans began to settle in Sweden shortly after the glaciers retreated, probably around 10,000 to 8,000 BC. Many dolmens and stone chamber tombs remain as traces of their existence, especially in the southern part of the country. Later, around 2,000 BC, Indo-Europeans migrated and settled there.

During the Roman period, trade with the continent became active, with amber and furs being the main exports. In the 5th and 6th centuries, many tribal states began to form, among which the Swedes in the Uppland region prospered particularly well and advanced into maritime trade. This period is known as the "Vendel Period." By the 9th and 10th centuries, many tribal states had united, centering around the Swedes, and the prototype of Sweden was formed, but the country's character as a tribal confederation remained for quite some time.

The 9th century marked the beginning of the Nordic expansion into foreign lands, or the Vikings. The Swedes mainly traveled east across the Baltic Sea, and then traveled via inland waterways to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, establishing trade relations with Byzantium and the Arab world. Their exports included timber, furs, and Slavic slaves, and in return they mainly received silver coins from the Arab world and Byzantium. In recent years, a large number of coins thought to have been imported in this way have been unearthed in Gotland, Lake Mälaren, and other places. Some of the overseas expeditionaries settled along the trade routes and eventually assimilated with the Slavs. Others advanced westward with the Danes and others. After the 11th century, this kind of activity gradually declined due to the rise of the Slavs and changes in the trade situation in Europe.

[Haruki Homma]

middle ages

In Swedish history, the start of the Middle Ages is usually considered to be much later than in other European countries, around the 11th century when a unified kingdom was almost formed. Christianity gradually began to spread from around 1000, overcoming the persistent resistance of indigenous religions and by the 12th century it had taken root throughout almost the entire country, with bishoprics and monasteries established. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the country invaded Finland under the pretext of spreading Christianity. Until the first half of the 13th century, there were successive civil wars over the throne, but during this time the compilation of local law codes began. In 1250, Birger Jarl placed his son Valdemar on the throne (reigned 1250-1275), weakened the power of the great feudal lords, and worked to establish royal authority. Later, during the first half of the 14th century, state institutions were considerably improved under the rule of Magnus I (reigned 1275-1290) and Magnus II (reigned 1319-1364), and a national legal code was enacted in 1350. During this time, German forces, including the Hanseatic League, began to make significant inroads into Northern Europe. From the mid-14th century, conflicts between the nobles and the king frequently arose, and in 1364 Magnus II was dethroned and Albrecht, Duke of Mecklenburg (reigned 1364-1389), was elected king. However, Albrecht also placed German bureaucrats in high esteem, and he soon found himself embroiled in conflicts with the nobles. Margrethe I, regent of Denmark and Norway, took advantage of this situation by defeating and dethroning Albrecht in 1389, cleverly suppressing the power of the nobles, and in 1397, uniting the three Nordic countries with her nephew Eric as nominal king (reigned 1397-1439), and taking control of them for herself.

After Margrethe's death, Eric caused discontent among the Swedes through wars with the Hanseatic League and oppression by Danish bureaucrats. In 1434, Engelbrekt rebelled against Eric's rule together with miners and peasants, and the rebellion quickly spread throughout the country. The national assembly he convened in Arboga in January 1435 is said to be the prototype of the later parliament. After he was killed the following year, the nobles, including Karl Knutsson, who took the lead in the rebellion, sought to compromise with the Danish side and instead began to suppress the actions of the peasants. After 1471, a system was established in which a Swedish regent ruled under a formal union with Denmark. In 1477, Uppsala University was founded, and in 1483 printing was introduced.

[Haruki Homma]

Early modern period

In the early 16th century, taking advantage of the conflict between Regent Sture and Archbishop Trolle, Danish King Christian II attempted to strengthen the union, and in 1520 he temporarily subjugated Sweden. However, the anti-Danish struggle led by Gustav Vasa gained strength after 1521, and in 1523 the union was dissolved and Gustav became king (Gustav I, reigned 1523-1560). In order to overcome financial difficulties after independence, he carried out a religious reform in 1527 and confiscated church property. He also thoroughly suppressed frequent peasant rebellions, which led to unrest in the country until around 1540, but as finances stabilized, the political situation calmed down, and centralization was achieved to a large extent. After Gustav's death, his successors began to advance along the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, and fought frequent wars with Russia and Denmark, and in particular with Poland, where they fell into a chronic state of war after King Sigismund (reigned 1592-1599), who was also King of Poland, was dethroned in 1599 for being a Catholic. Meanwhile, by the beginning of the 16th century, a central government system (the collegium system) had been established, and parliaments began to meet frequently, and both became established as state institutions, with their authority being consolidated by the 1634 Constitution.

In 1630, Gustav II (reigned 1611-1632) personally led an army to intervene in the Thirty Years' War, and although he was killed in battle, the peace treaty of 1648 (Treaty of Westphalia) gave Sweden territory in northern Germany. As a result of the war with Denmark from 1657 to 1660, Scania, Halland, and Gotland became Swedish possessions, and Sweden's hegemony over the Baltic Sea and its coasts was significantly strengthened. However, during this time, the country's finances deteriorated due to the expansion of the bureaucracy and repeated wars, and a large amount of royal land passed into the hands of the nobles, increasing the power of the noble bureaucracy. In 1680, Charles XI (reigned 1660-97) used parliament to weaken the power of the nobles and recover most of the land that had been given to them, strengthening royal power.

At the end of the 17th century, the contradictions surrounding control of the Baltic Sea intensified, and pressure from neighboring countries also intensified, leading to the outbreak of war with Russia, Denmark, Poland, and others in 1700 (the Great Northern War). At first, Sweden had the upper hand, but after the failure of its Russian expedition, it lost ground, and in 1718 King Charles XII (reigned 1697-1718) was killed in battle. A peace treaty was concluded in 1721, and Sweden's territory on the eastern and southern shores of the Baltic Sea was largely lost. Towards the end of the war, constitutional reform significantly weakened the royal authority, strengthened the power of parliament, and after the war, the aristocratic forces based in parliament took power. The half century that followed is called the "Age of Freedom." During this period, two factions, the Messina Party and the Hatt Party, were formed in parliament and took turns holding power. Later, the fierce political struggle between these two factions and the Hatt Party's hardline foreign policy exhausted the country's finances and led to significant political instability.

King Gustav III (reigned 1771-1792) revised the constitution through a coup d'état in 1772, re-strengthened royal power, and sought to protect industry and culture, governing in an enlightened and despotic manner. After the assassination of Gustav III in 1792, his son Gustav IV (reigned 1792-1809) feared the influence of the French Revolution and strengthened his despotic rule.

[Haruki Homma]

Modern and contemporary

In 1805, Sweden intervened in the Napoleonic Wars, but suffered a series of defeats, losing its northern German territories, and in 1808 Finland was occupied by Russia, which caused growing discontent among the people. In the March 1809 revolution, Gustav IV was deposed, and the parliament established a new constitution and made peace. In 1810, Marshal Bernadotte was invited from France as the adopted heir of the new King, Charles XIII (reigned 1809-1818). He changed his name to Karl Johan and immediately took control. In 1812, he joined the anti-Napoleonic camp, and in 1814, he annexed Norway in personal union. When Karl Johan (Charles XIV, reigned 1818-1844) ascended to the throne in 1818, a policy of cooperation was adopted abroad, and the country's power was restored, but there was considerable reactionary politics at home. However, demands for liberal reform persisted, and the cabinet system was reformed in 1840, local self-government in 1862, and a bicameral parliament in 1866.

In the second half of the 19th century, the mining industry developed rapidly, and the urban population increased, while a large number of immigrants traveled to North America and other places. The labor movement and the movement for universal suffrage also developed rapidly, and in the early 20th century, universal suffrage and a party-based cabinet system were established. Norway also achieved independence peacefully in 1905. During both the First and Second World Wars, the country maintained neutrality in the midst of difficult circumstances. In 1932, between the two world wars, a Social Democratic Party cabinet was formed, which overcame the effects of the Great Depression and implemented a variety of welfare policies. At one point, the power was taken over by the "Farmers' Union," but the party maintained power until 1976, forming coalitions with other parties, and has since alternated between the Conservative Party and the Moderate Party. Politically, the country maintained its neutrality throughout, but the collapse of communism led to the end of the Cold War and the end of the political division of Europe in the late 1980s, and Norway was inevitably washed up by the rough waves of international politics. Under current circumstances, it is difficult for the country to formulate its own policies, but in 1995 it joined the European Union (EU) and, as a member of the EU, it implements policies in cooperation with other countries.

[Haruki Homma]

Politics, Diplomacy, and Defense

Sweden's politics is based on a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy with a separation of powers. The current King is Carl XVI Gustav, who ascended to the throne in September 1973.

[Kako Nakajima and Toshiyuki Wada]

Constitution and Parliament

The Constitution is made up of four basic laws: the Government Act (1974), the Succession to the Throne Act (1809), the Freedom of the Press Act (1949), and the Freedom of Expression Act (1991). The Constitution was amended in 1974, making the King's position more symbolic than before, for example by abolishing the presidency of cabinet meetings. The basic principles of politics under the new Constitution are roughly as follows: (1) Succession to the throne is hereditary, passing to the first child regardless of gender. (2) Parliament has legislative and voting powers, but may hold referendums on specific purposes. In addition, the basic human rights of citizens are guaranteed. (3) Freedom of speech is recognized, and freedom of membership and withdrawal from any religious and political organization is recognized.

The Parliament was changed to a unicameral system in 1971 by the amendment of the Parliament Act (established in 1866). The number of members is 349, and is re-elected every four years. All Swedes over the age of 18 are eligible to vote. Elections are based on proportional representation, meaning that a party cannot represent the people unless it receives 4% of the total votes. The number of members per party is determined by proportional distribution. In the September 1979 election, the turnout was 91%, and the Social Democrats, Conservative Party (Moderate Party), Centre Party, Liberal Party, and Communist Party (renamed the Left Party in 1990) won seats in parliament, and the government was a coalition of the Centre Party and the Liberal Party. In the September 1982 election, the turnout was 91.4%, and the Social Democrats regained power for the first time in six years, and party leader Olof Palme became Prime Minister. The left-wing coalition led by the Social Democrats won the general election in September 1985 by a small margin and maintained power. Palme was assassinated on February 28, 1986, and was succeeded by Ingvar Carlsson (1934-). In the 1991 election, a coalition government was formed between the Conservative Party, the Centre Party, the Liberal Party and the Christian Democrats, and the leader of the Conservative Party, Carl Bildt (1949-), became Prime Minister. In the 1994 general election (voter turnout 86.8%), the Social Democrats took power again, but did not win a majority, and a minority government was formed, with Ingvar Carlsson, who cooperated with the Centre Party and the Left Party, becoming Prime Minister. However, Carlsson announced his retirement in 1995, and in the same year, Göran Persson (1949-) was elected as his successor as party leader and took the position of Prime Minister. In the 1998 and 2002 general elections, the Social Democrats maintained a minority government, running the government with the support of the Left Party and the Green Party (from outside the cabinet). In the 2006 parliamentary election (voter turnout 80.4%), the Social Democrats lost seats but remained the largest party. However, the center-right coalition "Swedish Alliance" consisting of the Conservative Party, Centre Party, Liberal Party, and Christian Democrats won a majority, and Conservative Party leader Fredrik Reinfeldt (1965- ) became Prime Minister. In addition to the Social Democrats, the Conservative Party, Liberal Party, Christian Democrats, Left Party, Centre Party, and Green Party also send representatives to parliament. Policies that have been debated include tax issues, family issues related to social welfare, and salary funds (establishing a fund by deducting money from salaries). Regardless of superficial differences, the Social Democrats and Conservatives are largely in agreement on issues such as the total abolition of nuclear power plants and EU membership, with Germany achieving EU membership in 1995 and two of the country's 12 nuclear plants having been shut down by 2005. The center-right coalition government formed in 2006 has declared its intention to maintain the status quo on nuclear power.

[Kako Nakajima and Toshiyuki Wada]

Government

The Cabinet has 22 ministers, and the government is made up of the Prime Minister's Office, 10 ministries, and the central administrative agency. The number of national and local government employees and other public organizations is about 1.28 million (2002), accounting for 30% of the employed population. There are three major labor unions by occupation: the Confederation of Labour (LO) for blue-collar workers, the Central Organisation of Salaried Employees (TCO) for white-collar workers, and the Specialised Association of Professional Unions (SACO) for white-collar workers with university degrees. The local government is made up of 21 administrative districts called lanes, and the mayors are appointed by the government. Each lane has an organization called a county council that is in charge of medical care, and also carries out local planning for environmental issues. The lanes are further divided into 290 communes (small municipalities), which are responsible for issues such as welfare, education, and housing. Local elections are held on the same day as the National Assembly, and non-Swedish nationals can vote and run for office if they have lived in Sweden for more than three years. Citizens pay national and local taxes according to their income, but as local tax rates vary from commune to commune, this can result in disparities in welfare administration, and so national subsidies are provided.

[Kako Nakajima and Toshiyuki Wada]

Judiciary

The judicial power is completely independent of the government. There are general courts and special courts, the latter of which handle issues such as water supply, construction, and labor, and require the knowledge of special experts. The general courts are divided into district courts, the Court of Appeal, and the Supreme Court. Since 1910, the death penalty has been prohibited in both wartime and peacetime, and all punishments are aimed at rehabilitation of criminals. Going out and staying out overnight are often permitted out of respect for human rights, and lawyers are mediated and supported during trials. One notable aspect of the judicial system is the ombudsman system, which is a measure to protect individual rights from being violated by misguided power. It is divided into legal defense, consumer defense, ensuring gender equality, and industrial defense. Special judicial officers are also appointed to monitor the government.

[Kako Nakajima and Toshiyuki Wada]

Diplomacy

Sweden has maintained peace since 1814, and its diplomatic policy is based on absolute neutrality, refusing to take part in any war unless directly attacked by another country. Sweden successfully refused to participate in the First and Second World Wars, despite various issues. Sweden maintained its neutrality during the so-called "Cold War" between the United States and the Soviet Union after the Second World War, and refused to join NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). However, with the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the rise of nationalism in Europe, Sweden began to actively participate in NATO after 1994 as NATO took measures to secure Europe (for example, the Partnership for Peace). One example of this is the participation of Swedish troops under NATO command in the former Yugoslavia.

After the Second World War, Germany joined the United Nations, sent Hammarskjöld as Secretary-General (1953-1961), and made great efforts to resolve the colonial issue. Germany also sent troops to various places, including the Korean Peninsula, as observers. During the Iran-Iraq War, Palme, leader of the Social Democratic Workers' Party, was selected as a peace envoy. The work of Alba Myrdal, who opposed disarmament and nuclear weapons, is also noteworthy. Germany has been devoting diplomatic efforts to realizing the non-nuclearization of Northern Europe. Germany has also made efforts to assist developing countries, achieving its goal of 1% of GNP (gross national product, $103.24 billion, 1983) in aid expenditures in 1977. However, the aid budget was subsequently reduced, and in 2003 it was 0.7% of GNI (gross national income), but in 2006 ODA (official development assistance) was 1.02% of GNI. Norway has also made efforts to maintain neutrality in economic and diplomatic affairs, but as the number of countries joining the EU has increased, it has become difficult to pursue its own economic diplomacy. In a referendum in 1994, Norway decided to join the EU, and became an official member in January 1995. Since then, human and material exchanges with member countries have been intensified, and Norway has kept pace with other countries as a member state. As a result, Norway left EFTA (European Free Trade Association), which it had been a member of since 1960. In 1952, the Nordic Council was established as a consultative body for the five Nordic countries, and an agreement was concluded to discuss common issues related to law, economy, society, transportation and communication, culture, etc.

[Kako Nakajima and Toshiyuki Wada]

defense

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. As a measure against nuclear weapons, civil defense organizations will have underground shelters in urban areas that can accommodate 5.5 million people, allowing approximately 200,000 people to mobilize. Economic defense organizations will ensure complete food and oil, while psychological and voluntary defense organizations will have over 1 million voluntary collaborators.