Physical anthropology

Japanese: 自然人類学 - しぜんじんるいがく(英語表記)physical anthropology
Physical anthropology

A science that studies the biology of human beings, with particular emphasis on their evolution, mutations, and adaptation. It is also called physical anthropology or constitutional anthropology. In continental European countries such as Germany, anthropology is understood in a narrow sense and refers to physical anthropology, but in the UK and the US, anthropology is used in a broad sense and is divided into physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. In Japan, anthropology is used in both the narrow and broad senses depending on the situation.

[Shise Kahara]

history

Since ancient times, humans have been interested in the origins of humans themselves, but for many years, this has resulted in absurd interpretations. They have also been interested in the appearances of foreign people, and especially since the 16th century, Europeans have been amazed by the wide range of variation in the inhabitants of various parts of the world. Based on this curiosity, efforts have been made to understand humans systematically. In the mid-18th century, Linnaeus classified humans as a member of the primate family when classifying animals, and later, Blumenbach preached human monism, collected many skulls from all over the world, and proposed a racial classification. He can be said to be the founder of scientific anthropology. In the first half of the 19th century, the existence of Paleolithic tools was confirmed, and in 1856, Neanderthals were discovered. Three years later, Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published, and the theory of evolution was widely discussed. Since then, fossil human bones have been discovered one after another from all over the Old World, the geological age has been clarified, and human evolution has come to be recognized as a scientific fact. Today, there are many fossil human bones, and for convenience these fossil human remains are placed in the various evolutionary stages of ape-man, early man, archaic man, and modern man, and the origin and lineage of humankind are being actively debated. It has been confirmed that all human beings on Earth belong to a single species. In the first half of the 20th century, attempts were made to classify races after excluding cultural factors from the concept of race, but since the 1950s, the formation of races has come to be questioned from the perspectives of genetics and ecology, while some scholars use the term polymorphism instead of race.

[Shise Kahara]

Research Field

The biggest issue facing physical anthropology today is human evolution in a broad sense. As regional development continues around the world, and travel and information exchange has become easier thanks to the development of transportation and communication systems, excavation techniques have improved, and related sciences have progressed, resulting in an increase in the number of fossils unearthed by chance, as well as more opportunities for planned excavation of fossils. As a result, paleoanthropology has made remarkable progress, and by combining with paleoprimatology, the relationship between humans and apes in the evolutionary history is becoming clearer. These studies require close cooperation and assistance from paleontology, paleoclimatology, geology, dating science, and especially prehistoric archaeology. On the other hand, the issue of temporal changes in the same local population is also attracting attention. For example, increases in height, changes in body proportions, brachycephalic phenomena, and regression of the chewing apparatus have been observed over time. Traditional physical anthropology developed methods of anthropometry and observation, which are deeply related not only to racial studies, but also to physical comparisons of local and occupational groups, as well as to studies of sex, growth, and nutrition. In research on races or polymorphisms, emphasis has been placed not only on variations in body length, bones, muscles, and external macroscopic morphology, but also on blood types and other biochemical traits that form Mendelian inheritance, and on DNA analysis. From these perspectives, we are confronted with problems regarding human and racial lineages, such as the origin of the Japanese and the formation of the Mongoloid race. Furthermore, in terms of human adaptation theory, cooperation with human kinesiology and physiology is necessary for research into unique human characteristics such as upright bipedal walking, finger function, tool use, and speech production mechanisms, as well as intergroup comparisons of functions such as the skin and circulatory system, and a unique field is being developed. Like modern science, physical anthropology cannot avoid being subdivided, but on the other hand, there is a strong demand for comprehensive consideration with cultural anthropology, ethology, and other fields in order to understand human beings as a whole, which are cultural animals.

[Shise Kahara]

"How did humans evolve?" by Kimura San (1980, Science Press) " "The Birth of Humankind and Civilization" by Don Broswell et al., translated by Kahara Shise (1980, Bunri)

[Reference items] | Humanity | Anthropology

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

人類を生物学的に研究する学問。とくにその進化、変異、適応の面を重視する。形質人類学、体質人類学ともよばれる。ドイツなどヨーロッパ大陸諸国では、人類学を狭義に解し、自然人類学をこれにあてるが、イギリス、アメリカでは人類学を広義に用い、自然人類学と文化人類学に分ける。日本では人類学は状況に応じて狭義、広義の両様に用いられている。

[香原志勢]

歴史

古来人類は人類自体の由来に興味をもったが、それは長年荒唐無稽(こうとうむけい)な解釈に終わっていた。また異国人の風貌(ふうぼう)にも関心を抱き、とくに16世紀以降のヨーロッパ人は、世界各地の住民たちの変異の幅に驚嘆した。このような好奇心を土台に、人類を系統的に理解しようとする努力がなされた。18世紀なかばにリンネは、動物分類に際し人類を霊長類の一員とし、遅れてブルーメンバハは人類一元論を説くとともに、世界各地から多数の頭骨を集め、人種分類を提言した。科学的人類学の始祖といえる。19世紀前半には旧石器の存在が確認され、1856年にはネアンデルタール人が発見された。その3年後、ダーウィンの『種の起原』が刊行され、進化論が広く論ぜられた。以後、旧世界各地から化石人骨が続々と発見され、地質年代も明らかになり、人類進化は科学的事実として認められるようになった。今日では多数の化石人骨の集積があり、便宜上これらの化石人類は猿人、原人、旧人、新人の各進化段階に置かれており、人類の起源や系統が活発に論議されている。地球上の人類はすべて一つの種に入ることが確認されている。20世紀前半には人種概念から文化的なものを排除したうえで、人種分類が試みられたが、1950年以降は遺伝学および生態学的立場から人種形成が問題とされる一方、人種という用語のかわりに、多型とよぶ学者もいる。

[香原志勢]

研究分野

現在の自然人類学は広い意味での人類進化を最大の課題としている。世界各地で地域開発が進み、交通通信機関の発達により旅行、情報交換が容易となり、発掘技術が改善され、関連諸科学が進歩したため、偶然出土する化石資料が増し、化石資料の計画的発掘の機会も多くなった。この結果、古人類学の発展には目覚ましいものがあるが、それは古霊長類学と結び付くことによって人類と類人猿の進化史上の関係が解明されつつある。これらの研究には古生物学、古気候学、地質学、年代測定学そして、とくに先史考古学の密接な協力・援助が必須(ひっす)となっている。一方、同一地域集団の時間的変遷の問題も注目されている。たとえば身長の増加、身体比率の変化、短頭化現象、そしゃく器の退縮などが時間の推移とともに観察されている。従来の自然人類学は人体計測および観察の手法を開発したため、人種研究のみならず、地域集団、職業集団などの身体比較や、性、成長、栄養の研究にもこれらが深く関係している。人種もしくは多型研究にあたり、体長、骨、筋肉および外形上の肉眼的な形態の変異ばかりでなく、メンデル遺伝をなす血液型やその他の生化学的形質、さらにDNA解析も重視されるようになった。これらの観点にたって、人類および人種系統、たとえば日本人の起源やモンゴロイドの成立といった問題に当面している。さらに人類適応論の面から、直立二足歩行、手指機能、道具使用、言語発声機構などの人類固有の諸特徴や、皮膚、循環器などの諸機能の集団間比較などの研究にあたって、人体運動学や生理学との協力が必要であり、独自の分野が開拓されている。現代科学同様、自然人類学も細分化を免れないが、一方では文化をもつ動物である人類を全体としてとらえるため、文化人類学や動物行動学その他との総合的な考察を求める声も高い。

[香原志勢]

『木村賛著『ヒトはいかに進化したか』(1980・サイエンス社)』『ドン・ブロスウェル他著、香原志勢監訳『人類と文明の誕生』(1980・文理)』

[参照項目] | 人類 | 人類学

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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