Modern Economics

Japanese: 近代経済学 - きんだいけいざいがく
Modern Economics

A term for Marxist economics. The English equivalent of the term modern economics is "modern economics," but in the West there is no terminology that gives this term a special meaning other than the usual meaning of modern economics or contemporary economics. However, in Japan, the special terminology of the term "modern economics" became established around the mid-1950s after World War II. According to Hayasaka Tadashi (1931-1995), "almost all non-Marxist economics, excluding the historical school and the institutional school, from the marginal revolution that occurred in the early 1870s to the present day, can be collectively called modern economics" ("What is 'modern economics'?").

This special terminology of modern economics is abbreviated as "Kinkei," and the two concepts of economics, "Kinkei" and "Marxist economics" (an abbreviation for Marxist economics), were institutionalized, so to speak, through the juxtaposition of two lectures in university economics curricula and the establishment of two academic societies.

However, what could be considered a precursor to this kind of approach was already seen in 1927 (Showa 2) in the "Principles of Economics" lectures at Tokyo University of Commerce (now Hitotsubashi University) (concurrent lectures given by Tokusaburo Fukuda and Kinnosuke Otsuka).

However, it is said that in Japan, the term "modern economics" (initially the term "modern economic theory" was used instead) began to be used in literature as a counter term to Marxian economics after O. R. Lange's paper "Marxian Economics and Modern Economic Theory" ( Review of Economic Studies , June 1935). Incidentally, Lange's paper was inspired by Shibata Kei's (1902-1986) paper "Marx's Analysis of Capitalism and the General Equilibrium Theory of the Lausanne School" ( The Kyoto University Economic Review , July 1933), and as Hayasaka Tadashi points out, "the term 'modern economics' was extremely closely related to Japan in its origins."

A variety of factors, both distant and close, seem to have played a role in the establishment of the unique terminology of "modern economics" in Japan after the Second World War. Before the war, various Western economics were introduced to Japan, but the only foreign economics that took root in Japan was Marxist economics, which was established in the early to mid-Taisho period. Various non-Marxist economics were also introduced, but they tended to be partial and were resented for lacking systematicity compared to Marxist economics. As a result, Marxist economists came to dominate the majority of the Japanese economics world. However, although they were in the minority, systematic research on non-Marxist economics was gradually progressing, especially by Takada Yasuma, Nakayama Ichiro, Yasui Takuma, and others, centering on the economics of M.E.L. Walras. The foundations of modern economics, which would flourish after the war, were quietly cultivated at least in the early Showa period.

During World War II, a mystical nationalistic economics was rampant. After the war, economists who rallied around modern economics held the ideal of economics as an empirical science, free from ideology and dubious metaphysics.

After the Second World War, Eiichi Sugimoto's best-selling book, The Interpretation of Modern Economics (1950), contributed greatly to the popularization of the term "modern economics." However, ironically, Sugimoto's definition of "modern economics" was a general term for "various schools of economics that were established after the collapse of the classical school, chronologically speaking, in the 1860s and 1870s," and included Marxist economics.

By the way, what is the significance of using the term "modern economics" to encompass all non-Marxian economics after the marginal revolution? It is, of course, that the foundations of modern economics were built by the marginal revolution. There is some debate as to whether the marginal revolution was a revolution or not, but there is no doubt that the foundations of modern economics were built by the great achievements independently accomplished by three men: W. S. Jevons (1871) of England, C. Menger (1871) of Austria, and Walras (1874) of Lausanne, Switzerland, who rejected the classical school's production cost theory of value and developed the utility theory of value to replace it, and brought about innovations in the subsequent development of economic analysis. The Marginal Revolution "not only significantly shifted the focus of economic theory from supply, production, and distribution, which was the focus of classical economics, to subjective factors such as demand and consumption, but also laid the foundation for a comprehensive systematization of the subject of economics, including the elaboration of competitive price theory, the integration of value, production, and distribution theory, the refinement of economic logic, and the expansion of mathematical methods of analysis" (Coates, Alfred William Coats, 1924-2007). However, to generalize the achievements of the three pioneers of innovation, their achievements "were very importantly different, not only in form, but also in essential content and intent" (Jaffé, William Jaffé, 1898-1980). Therefore, modern economics includes the economics of the Austrian School (founded by Menger), the Lausanne School (Walras), the Cambridge School (A. Marshall), and the Scandinavian School (K. Wicksell), which was later added. In the 1930s, J.M. Keynes's The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936) brought about the Keynesian Revolution, and J.R. Hicks' Value and Capital (1939, mainly the first half) attracted the attention of economists around the world, and it appeared as if the so-called paradigm of modern economics had been established.

However, around the 1970s, a shadow began to fall on this paradigm. As the "crisis of economics" surfaced, including stagflation, pollution, international currency, and resource issues, modern economics began to focus on the revival and competition of pre-paradigm schools, rather than the monopoly of the paradigm. The same was true for macroeconomic theory, where monetarists revived the A. Smith-esque vision in opposition to Keynesians. In addition, with the return of Piero Sraffa (1898-1983) of the Cambridge School to the classical school, and the approach of J. V. Robinson and others to Marxian economics, modern economics, now in a transitional period, is likely to blur the boundaries between the historical school and the institutional school, which it had previously rejected for their different perspectives and approaches.

[Ryuzo Sato]

"What is Modern Economics?" by Hayasaka Tadashi (included in Rethinking Modern Economics, edited by Inada Kenichi, Okamoto Tetsuji, and Hayasaka Tadashi, 1974, Yuhikaku)""Economics and the Marginal Revolution, edited by R.D. Collison Black, A.W. Coates, and C.D.W. Goodwin, translated by Okada Junichi and Hayasaka Tadashi (1975, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)""The Genealogy of Modern Economics, edited by Tamanoi Yoshiro and Kashiwazaki Toshinosuke (1976, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)""Modern Economics and Japan, edited by Minokuchi Takeo and Hayasaka Tadashi (1978, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)" ▽ "Economics and Its Surroundings, by Yasui Takuma (1979, Mokkusha)" ▽ "Understanding Modern Economics, Volumes 1 and 2, by Sugimoto Eiichi (Iwanami Bunko)"

[References] | Austrian School | Economics | History of Economic Theory | Marginal Revolution | Cambridge School | Scandinavian School | Marxian Economics | Lausanne School

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

マルクス経済学に対する用語。近代経済学という語に対応する英語はmodern economicsであるが、欧米にはこの語に、近代の経済学あるいは現代の経済学という、通常の意味以外の特殊な意味をもたせる用語法はない。しかし、日本では、第二次世界大戦後のおおよそ1950年代のなかばごろに、近代経済学という語の特殊な用語法が定着した。すなわち、早坂忠(ただし)(1931―1995)によれば「1870年代初頭におこった限界革命から今日に至るまでの、歴史学派と制度学派とを除く、非マルクス系の経済学ほぼ全体を、一口に近代経済学と呼ぶ」(「『近代経済学』とは何か」)のである。

 近代経済学のこの特殊な用語法は、「近経」と略称され、「近経」と「マル経」(マルクス系の経済学の略称)という二つの経済学の観念は、大学の経済学のカリキュラムに二つの講義を併置するという形で、また学会も二つの学会が設立されるという形で、いわば制度化された。

 もっとも、このたぐいの先駆というべきものが、すでに1927年(昭和2)に、東京商科大学(現、一橋大学)の「経済原論」の講義にあった(福田徳三と大塚金之助による並行講義)。

 しかし、日本において、マルクス経済学に対抗するものとして、「近代経済学」(当初は、むしろ「近代経済理論」という語が用いられた)という語が文献のうえで使われ始めたのは、O・R・ランゲの論文「マルクス経済学と近代経済理論」Marxian Economics and Modern Economic Theory(Review of Economic Studies, June 1935)以後のことであるといわれている。なお、このランゲの論文は、柴田敬(しばたけい)(1902―1986)の論文「マルクスの資本主義分析とローザンヌ学派の一般均衡理論」Marx's Analysis of Capitalism and the General Equilibrium Theory of the Lausanne School(The Kyoto University Economic Review, July 1933)に刺激されて書かれたものであり、早坂忠が指摘したように、「『近代経済学』という語は発生的にも極めて日本と密着していた」。

 第二次世界大戦後の日本に「近代経済学」という語の特殊な用語法が成立するについては、遠近さまざまの要因が働いたものと思われる。戦前、日本には欧米のいろいろな経済学が導入されたが、日本の土壌に定着した外国経済学の唯一は、大正の初期から中期にかけて定着したマルクス経済学であった。いろいろな学派の非マルクス系の経済学も導入されたが、部分的になりがちで、マルクス経済学に比べ体系性に欠けるうらみがあった。そのため、日本の経済学界の多数派はマルクス経済学者で占められる結果となった。しかし、少数派ではあったが、非マルクス系の経済学の体系的研究は、とりわけM・E・L・ワルラスの経済学を中心に、高田保馬(やすま)、中山伊知郎、安井琢磨(たくま)らによってしだいに進められていた。戦後開花する近代経済学の基礎は、少なくとも昭和初期には、ひそかに培われていたのである。

 第二次世界大戦の戦時下には、神がかり的な国粋主義経済学が跳梁(ちょうりょう)した。戦後、近代経済学のもとに結集した経済学者たちが抱いた理念は、イデオロギーや怪しげな形而上(けいじじょう)学から自由な、経験科学としての経済学のそれであった。

 第二次世界大戦後、「近代経済学」という語の普及に、杉本栄一のベストセラー『近代経済学の解明』(1950)は大いに貢献した。しかし、皮肉なことに、杉本の定義した「近代経済学」は、「古典学派の解体ののちに成立した、年代的にいって、1860、70年代に成立した諸々の経済学」の総称であり、マルクス経済学を含めたものであった。

 ところで、「近代経済学」という語によって、限界革命以降の非マルクス系の経済学を包括して考えることの意義はどこにあるか。もとより、限界革命によって近代経済学の基礎が築かれた、ということである。限界革命が革命であったか否かは異論のあるところであるが、イギリスのW・S・ジェボンズ(1871)、オーストリアのC・メンガー(1871)、およびスイス・ローザンヌのワルラス(1874)の3人が、それぞれ独立に成し遂げた偉業、すなわち、古典学派の生産費価値論を退け、それにとってかわる効用価値論を展開し、その後の経済分析の発展にもたらした革新によって、近代経済学の基礎が築かれた、ということには異論はなかろう。限界革命は、「古典派の経済学が供給、生産および分配を中心に考えていたものを、むしろ需要と消費といった主観的な要素を強調する方に、経済理論の焦点を大きく移動させたばかりでなく、競争的価格理論の精緻(せいち)化、価値、生産および分配理論の統合、経済論理の洗練、および分析の数学的方法の拡張を含めて、経済学の主題の包括的体系化のための基礎を築いた」(コーツAlfred William Coats。1924―2007)。しかし、革新を開いた3人の業績を一括するには、それぞれの業績は、「単に形式においてばかりでなく、本質的な内容と意図についても大変重要な違いがあった」(ジャッフェWilliam Jaffé。1898―1980)。したがって、近代経済学には、オーストリア学派(メンガーが始祖)、ローザンヌ学派(ワルラス)、ケンブリッジ学派(A・マーシャル)、その後加わった北欧学派(K・ウィクセル)の諸学派の経済学が含まれることになる。1930年代に至ると、J・M・ケインズの『雇用・利子および貨幣の一般理論』(1936)がケインズ革命をもたらし、かつまたJ・R・ヒックスの『価値と資本』(1939。主として前半部)が世界の経済学者の関心を集め、いわば近代経済学のいわゆるパラダイムが成立したかの観を呈する。

 しかし、1970年代前後になって、このパラダイムに影がさしてくる。スタグフレーション、公害問題、国際通貨問題、資源問題など、「経済学の危機」が表面化するに至り、近代経済学は、パラダイムの独占よりも、パラダイム成立前の諸学派の蘇生(そせい)と競合が目だつようになった。マクロ理論についても同様で、ケインジアンに対しマネタリストはむしろA・スミス的ビジョンを復活させた。また、ケンブリッジ学派のスラッファPiero Sraffa(1898―1983)のいわば古典学派への復帰、J・V・ロビンソンらのマルクス経済学への接近など、過渡期を迎えた近代経済学が、かつて視点と接近方法が異質であることを理由に排除した歴史学派と制度学派との境界を自らあいまいにすることも生じてくると考えられる。

[佐藤隆三]

『早坂忠著「『近代経済学』とは何か」(稲田献一・岡本哲治・早坂忠編『近代経済学再考』所収・1974・有斐閣)』『R・D・コリソン・ブラック、A・W・コーツ、C・D・W・グッドウィン編著、岡田純一・早坂忠訳『経済学と限界革命』(1975・日本経済新聞社)』『玉野井芳郎・柏崎利之輔編『近代経済学の系譜』(1976・日本経済新聞社)』『美濃口武雄・早坂忠編『近代経済学と日本』(1978・日本経済新聞社)』『安井琢磨著『経済学とその周辺』(1979・木鐸社)』『杉本栄一著『近代経済学の解明』上・下(岩波文庫)』

[参照項目] | オーストリア学派 | 経済学 | 経済学説史 | 限界革命 | ケンブリッジ学派 | 北欧学派 | マルクス経済学 | ローザンヌ学派

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