Influenza virus

Japanese: インフルエンザウイルス
Influenza virus
(1) Influenza virus
Definition/Concept: Influenza is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses belonging to the Orthomyxoviridae family. It occurs annually, causing many deaths due to pneumonia, especially among the elderly. In Japan, rapid diagnosis and treatment with neuraminidase inhibitors are widespread. As a preventative measure, influenza vaccines are administered to the elderly and high-risk patients.
ClassificationInfluenza viruses are RNA viruses and come in three types: A, B, and C, although it is types A and B that cause major epidemics. They have two types of spikes (thorn-like structures) on their surface: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) (Figure 4-4-17). Type A is found in birds, pigs, and horses as well as humans. Type B is found only in humans. Type A influenza is classified by the combination of HA and NA. Of the bird influenza strains, H5N1 is highly toxic.
Epidemiology : Influenza occurs annually in epidemics during the winter, affecting 5-10% of the population. The majority of deaths occur among the elderly, with thousands of deaths occurring each year, ranging from tens of thousands in major epidemics. In children, influenza is an important cause of hospitalization during the winter.
Since 2003, avian H5N1 influenza has been prevalent in Southeast Asia, killing countless poultry. In exceptional cases, humans have become infected when they have come into close contact with H5N1-infected chickens. The mortality rate for people who become ill is extremely high, at over 60%.
Pandemic influenza:
The swine-origin influenza virus is now considered seasonal influenza and has the official name Influenza A (H1N1) 2009. The outbreak began in Mexico in April 2009 and has since spread around the world. The swine-origin influenza virus emerged as a result of genetic reassortment of viruses that were circulating in pigs, humans, and birds.
The death toll from the new influenza epidemic in the United States reached 12,000, most of which were due to severe viral pneumonia. The number of deaths in Japan was extremely low at 200, but the main cause is thought to be the thorough early administration of neuraminidase inhibitor treatment.
Pathophysiology: Influenza viruses cause infection by binding to receptors on cells in the larynx and bronchi via HA. ​​The receptors in humans and birds have different structures, so in principle, avian influenza does not infect humans. Hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies suppress the action of HA, and influenza vaccines are the artificial creation of these antibodies.
When an influenza virus infects a cell, RNA inside the virus is released and travels toward the cell's nucleus. This process is called uncoating. The anti-influenza drug amantadine inhibits uncoating. When the virus multiplies within the cell and escapes to spread into the surrounding area, it must sever the bond between HA and the receptor, and this is accomplished by NA. NA is an enzyme, and neuraminidase inhibitors competitively act on the active site of the virus to inhibit it. As a result of the action of the inhibitor, the virus dies without being able to infect surrounding cells.
There are three types of HA in humans (H1, H2, H3) and two types of NA (N1, N2). The three types currently circulating are influenza A (H1N1) 2009, Hong Kong influenza A (H3N2), and influenza B. Human influenza viruses mutate every year, causing slight changes in the antigenicity of HA and NA. This is called antigenic drift, and it causes a decrease in the effectiveness of vaccines. In addition, once every few decades, a virus with avian or swine-derived HA can appear due to genetic cross-breeding between avian, swine, and human influenza, or due to a mutation in avian influenza. This is the emergence of a new type of influenza, and is called antigenic drift.
Infection routes and preventive measures: Influenza viruses can be transmitted by contact or droplets, but in large-scale epidemics, droplet nuclei infection (airborne infection) may also play a role. Influenza has a short incubation period, usually 24 to 48 hours. Influenza viruses can be isolated from the pharynx for 3 to 5 days after the onset of symptoms.
Clinical symptoms begin with a sudden high fever, followed by severe systemic symptoms such as sore throat, headache, joint pain, pain in the limbs, and fatigue. The fever subsides within 2-3 days, and respiratory symptoms such as nasal discharge and cough become more noticeable around this time. Full recovery takes 1-2 weeks. Elderly people and high-risk patients with underlying diseases often develop bacterial pneumonia, which can lead to hospitalization or death. In young infants and young children, systemic symptoms become less noticeable and respiratory symptoms become the main symptom. In adults, Hong Kong influenza A is clinically severe and is the cause of influenza-related deaths (excess mortality).
In Japan, frequent outbreaks of influenza-associated encephalitis and encephalopathy among young children have become a problem. In children with influenza encephalopathy, cerebrospinal fluid tests are negative for the virus, and the cause of impaired consciousness and encephalopathy is unclear. Symptoms include high fever, convulsions, and abnormal speech and behavior. Electroencephalograms show diffuse high-amplitude slow waves, and imaging diagnostics may show cerebral edema as well as bilateral thalamic necrosis, which has been reported as acute necrotizing encephalopathy.
Diagnosis: Clinical diagnosis is possible with a relatively high degree of accuracy after understanding the epidemic situation, but rapid influenza diagnosis is widely used in clinical settings. Viral antigens are detected by swabbing the throat or nasal cavity with a cotton swab or by aspirating nasal secretions as samples. Results are available in about 15 minutes. Based on virus isolation, the sensitivity is about 60-90%. False positives are low, so if the rapid diagnosis is positive, it can be diagnosed as influenza A or B.
Serological diagnosis of influenza includes the complement fixation reaction and the hemagglutination inhibition test.
Anti-influenza drugs for treatment include neuraminidase inhibitors, such as oral oseltamivir, inhaled zanamivir, intravenous peramivir, and inhaled laninamivir. Amantadine is effective against influenza A, but should not be used because resistance is increasing.
1) Zanamivir (trade name Relenza):
It is a neuraminidase inhibitor administered by inhalation. For treatment, it is inhaled into the airways through an inhaler twice a day for five days. Inhalation must be started as early as 48 hours after the onset of symptoms. Administration of zanamivir shortens the main symptoms of influenza by one day or more. For prevention, an 84% effectiveness rate has been reported when inhaled once a day.
As a side effect, inhalation may induce airway constriction, so it should be administered with caution to patients with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
2) Oseltamivir (brand name Tamiflu):
It is a neuraminidase inhibitor taken orally. For treatment, one capsule (75 mg) is taken twice a day for five days. Taking oseltamivir orally shortens the duration of major influenza symptoms by at least one day. It should be started as early as 48 hours after the onset of symptoms. For prevention, it has been reported to be 85% effective in preventing onset.
Side effects of oseltamivir include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. One problem with oseltamivir is that when used therapeutically, resistant viruses occur at a somewhat high rate, reportedly at less than 1% in adults and 5.5% in children. However, unlike resistant bacteria, resistant viruses are not transmitted from person to person and do not cause severe illness. In 2007, abnormal behavior after administration of oseltamivir became a problem, and the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare banned the use of oseltamivir in teenage influenza patients.
3) Peramivir (trade name Rapiacta):
In 2010, peramivir, a new intravenous neuraminidase inhibitor, was approved in Japan, ahead of the rest of the world. For adults, peramivir is administered as a single intravenous infusion at a dose of 300 mg.
In principle, it is administered intravenously once and is a long-acting neuraminidase inhibitor, due to the property of peramivir attaching to the neuraminidase activation site of the virus and not dissociating. It is generally used for hospitalized patients. Peramivir is hardly detectable in the blood 24 hours after intravenous administration, so it has no preventive effect.
4) Laninamivir (trade name Inavir):
It is a long-acting inhaled medication developed in Japan and approved in 2010. It has been reported that a single inhalation on the first day of treatment has the same therapeutic effect as a five-day administration of oseltamivir. After inhalation, laninamivir is absorbed into respiratory cells, becomes an active substance within the cells, and is gradually released into the airways, exerting a long-lasting effect.
It must be administered within 48 hours of onset of symptoms. Prophylactic use is not approved.
Influenza vaccine:
The influenza vaccine used in Japan is an inactivated one. The virus is inoculated into hatched chicken eggs and allowed to grow, then centrifuged to remove the egg components and purify the vaccine. Ether is added to the purified virus to break down the virus particles and extract the HA component. As the main component of the vaccine is HA, it is also known as the influenza HA vaccine.
The vaccine stockpiled for H5N1 is made by purifying the virus particles as they are, without ether treatment, and is called a whole-particle vaccine, but it has stronger side effects.
In healthy adults, influenza vaccines are 70-90% effective in preventing illness if the vaccine strain matches the prevalent strain. The effectiveness of the vaccine decreases in elderly people, so it is important that people around them get vaccinated to prevent elderly people from becoming infected.
The amount of influenza vaccine administered varies according to age. Adults receive one 0.5 mL dose, those aged 3 to 12 years receive two 0.5 mL doses, and those aged 6 months to under 3 years receive two 0.25 mL doses.
In the United States, a live attenuated influenza vaccine has been developed and is currently approved for use in people aged 1 to 49 who have no underlying medical conditions. [Norio Sugaya]
■ References

Fiore AE, Uyeki TM, et al: Prevention and control of influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep, 59 (RR-8): 1-62, 2010.
Sugaya N: Widespread use of neuraminidase inhibitors in Japan. J Infect Chemother, 17: 595-601, 2011.
Figure 4-4-17
Electron microscopy of influenza virus ">

Figure 4-4-17


Source : Internal Medicine, 10th Edition About Internal Medicine, 10th Edition Information

Japanese:
(1)インフルエンザウイルス(influenza virus)
定義・概念
 オルソミクソウイルス科に属するインフルエンザウイルスによる感染症である.毎年の流行で,高齢者を中心に肺炎を併発して多くの死亡が発生する.日本では,迅速診断とノイラミニダーゼ阻害薬による治療が普及している.予防としてインフルエンザワクチンが高齢者とハイリスク患者を中心に接種されている.
分類
 インフルエンザウイルスはRNAウイルスで,A,B,C型があるが,大きな流行を起こすのはA型とB型である.表面に2種類のスパイク(棘状の構造)をもつ.赤血球凝集素(hemagglutinin:HA)と,ノイラミニダーゼ(neuraminidase: NA)である(図4-4-17).A型は,ヒト以外に,鳥,ブタ,ウマに存在する.B型はヒトにのみ存在する.A型インフルエンザはHAとNAの組み合わせで分類される.鳥インフルエンザのうち,H5N1は毒性が強い.
疫学
 インフルエンザは,毎年,冬季に流行を繰り返し,人口の5〜10%が罹患する.死亡者の大多数は高齢者が占め,毎年,数千人から,大きな流行時には数万人が死亡する.小児では,インフルエンザは冬季の入院の重要な原因となる.
 2003年から東南アジアで鳥H5N1インフルエンザが流行し,莫大な数の家禽が犠牲となった.H5N1に感染した鶏に密接に接触した場合,例外的に人の感染が起きている.発病した人の死亡率は60%以上ときわめて高い.
新型インフルエンザ(pandemic influenza):
ブタ由来新型インフルエンザは,現在は季節性インフルエンザとして,インフルエンザA (H1N1) 2009が正式名称となっている.2009年4月にメキシコで流行が始まり世界に広がった.新型インフルエンザは,ブタ,ヒト,鳥の世界で,それぞれ流行していたウイルスが遺伝子再集合を起こして出現した.
 新型インフルエンザ流行により,米国では死亡者数は1万2000人にのぼった.多くは重症のウイルス肺炎による.日本での死亡は200名ときわめて少なかったが,早期のノイラミニダーゼ阻害薬治療の徹底が最大の原因と考えられる.
病態生理
 インフルエンザウイルスは,HAで咽喉頭や気管支の細胞の受容体に結合し感染を起こす.受容体は人と鳥で構造が異なるので,鳥インフルエンザは原則として人には感染しない.HAの作用を抑制するのが赤血球凝集阻止抗体で,この抗体を人工的につくるのがインフルエンザワクチンである.
 インフルエンザウイルスは,感染した細胞内でウイルス内部のRNAが出て細胞の核に向かう.これを脱殻という.脱殻を阻害するのが,抗インフルエンザ薬,アマンタジンである.細胞内でウイルスが増殖し細胞外に出て周囲に広がるとき,HAと受容体との結合を切る必要があるが,その働きをするのがNAである.NAは酵素でありその活性化部位に競合的に作用して阻害するのが,ノイラミニダーゼ阻害薬である.阻害薬の作用により,ウイルスは周囲の細胞に感染することができないまま死滅する.
 ヒトのインフルエンザではHAが3種類(H1,H2,H3),NAが2種類(N1,N2)ある.現在流行しているのは,インフルエンザA(H1N1)2009,A香港型(H3N2)とB型インフルエンザの3種類である.人のインフルエンザウイルスは,毎年,突然変異を起こし,HAとNAの抗原性が少しずつ変化する.これを抗原連続変異といい,ワクチン効果が低下する原因となる.また数十年に一度,鳥,ブタ,ヒトのインフルエンザの遺伝子の交雑,あるいは鳥インフルエンザの突然変異により,HAが鳥やブタ由来のウイルスが出現することがある.これが新型インフルエンザの出現で,抗原不連続変異という.
感染経路と予防策
 インフルエンザウイルスには接触感染と飛沫感染があるが,大規模な流行では飛沫核感染(空気感染)の関与も考えられる.インフルエンザは潜伏期が短く,通常では24〜48時間である.インフルエンザウイルスは咽頭から,発病後3〜5日間は分離される.
臨床症状
 突然の高熱から始まり,咽頭痛,頭痛,関節痛,四肢痛,倦怠感など全身症状が強い.2〜3日で解熱し,その頃から鼻漏,咳など呼吸器症状が目立ってくる.完全な回復には1〜2週間を要する.高齢者や基礎疾患を有するハイリスク患者では,細菌性肺炎を合併することが多く,入院や死亡の原因となる.低年齢の乳幼児になると,全身症状は目立たなくなり,呼吸器症状が中心となる.成人ではA香港型インフルエンザが臨床的に重く,インフルエンザに関連した死亡(超過死亡)の原因となる.
 日本では,幼児にインフルエンザに伴った脳炎,脳症が多発することが問題となっている.インフルエンザ脳症( influenza encephalopathy)患児では,髄液からはウイルスは陰性で,意識障害を生じ脳症に至る原因は明らかではない.高熱,痙攣,異常言動がみられる.脳波では,びまん性高振幅徐波,画像診断としては脳浮腫のほかに,急性壊死性脳症として報告されている両側性の視床の壊死像がみられることがある.
診断
 流行状況を把握したうえでの臨床診断は比較的に高い確率で可能であるが,臨床現場では,インフルエンザ迅速診断が広く実施されている.咽頭や鼻腔を綿棒で拭うか,あるいは鼻汁を吸引して検体として,ウイルス抗原を検出する.15分程度で結果が判明する.ウイルス分離を基準とすると,60〜90%程度の感度がある.偽陽性は少ないので,迅速診断で陽性の場合は,A型あるいはB型インフルエンザと診断してよい.
 インフルエンザの血清診断には,補体結合反応法と赤血球凝集抑制試験がある.
治療
 抗インフルエンザ薬には,ノイラミニダーゼ阻害薬として,経口薬のオセルタミビル,吸入薬のザナミビル,静注のペラミビル,吸入薬のラニナミビルがある.アマンタジンはA型に有効であるが,耐性が増加しているので使用すべきではない.
1)ザナミビル(商品名リレンザ):
吸入で使用するノイラミニダーゼ阻害薬である.治療では,吸入器を用いて1日2回,5日間,口から気道に吸入する.発病早期48時間以内に吸入を開始する必要がある.ザナミビル投与により,インフルエンザの主要症状が1日以上短縮する.予防では,1日1回吸入で84%の有効率が報告されている.
 副作用として,吸入により,気道の攣縮を誘発する可能性があるので,喘息や慢性閉塞性肺疾患(COPD)の患者では慎重に投与する.
2)オセルタミビル(商品名タミフル):
内服で使用するノイラミニダーゼ阻害薬である.治療では,1カプセル(75 mg)を1日2回,5日間内服する.オセルタミビルの内服により,インフルエンザの主要症状が1日以上短縮する.発病早期48時間以内に服用を開始する.予防では発症防止効果は85%と報告されている.
 オセルタミビルの副作用として,悪心,嘔吐,下痢がみられる.オセルタミビルの問題点として,治療に使用した場合,耐性ウイルスがやや高頻度に発生し,成人で1%以下,小児では5.5%と報告されている.ただし,細菌の耐性と異なり,耐性ウイルスは人から人には感染せず,また重症化することもない.2007年に,オセルタミビル投与後の異常行動が問題となり,厚労省は,10代のインフルエンザ患者でのオセルタミビルの使用を禁止した.
3)ペラミビル(商品名ラピアクタ):
2010年に静注用の新たなノイラミニダーゼ阻害薬,ペラミビルが世界に先立ち,日本で承認された.成人ではペラミビルとして300 mgを,単回,点滴静注する.
 原則は1回静注であり,長時間作用型のノイラミニダーゼ阻害薬であるが,これはペラミビルが,ウイルスのノイラミニダーゼ活性化部位に付着して解離しない性質による.基本的には,入院患者に用いる.ペラミビルは,静注後24時間後には,血中にほとんど検出されなくなるので,予防的な効果はない.
4)ラニナミビル(商品名イナビル):
日本で開発された長時間作用型の吸入薬で,2010年に承認された.治療初日1度の吸入で,オセルタミビル5日間投与と同等の治療効果が報告されている.ラニナミビルは吸入後,呼吸器細胞に吸収され,細胞内で活性物質となり,徐々に気道に排出され長時間作用する.
 発症後48時間以内の投与が必要である.予防投与は認可されていない.
インフルエンザワクチン:
日本で使用されているのは不活化インフルエンザワクチンである.ふ化鶏卵にウイルスを接種し増殖させたあと,遠心分離をかけ卵の成分を取り去り精製して製造する.精製したウイルスにエーテルを加えて,ウイルス粒子を分解しHA成分を取り出したものである.ワクチンのおもな成分はHAなので,インフルエンザHAワクチンともよばれている.
 H5N1用に備蓄したワクチンは,エーテル処理をせずにウイルス粒子そのままで精製してあり,全粒子ワクチンというが副作用が強まる.
 インフルエンザワクチンの有効性は,健康成人では,ワクチン株と流行株が一致した場合は,発病防止効果が70〜90%ある.高齢者ではワクチンの有効性は低下するので,周囲の人々が接種して高齢者が罹患しないようにすることが大切である.
 インフルエンザワクチンの接種量は年齢により分けられている.成人では0.5 mLの1回接種,3〜12歳までは0.5 mLの2回接種,6カ月〜3歳未満では0.25 mLの2回接種である.
 米国では,弱毒生インフルエンザワクチンが開発されて,現在,1歳以上49歳以下で基礎疾患のない場合に使用が認められている.[菅谷憲夫]
■文献

Fiore AE, Uyeki TM, et al: Prevention and control of influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep, 59 (RR-8): 1-62, 2010.
Sugaya N: Widespread use of neuraminidase inhibitors in Japan. J Infect Chemother, 17: 595-601, 2011.
図4-4-17
インフルエンザウイルスの電顕像">

図4-4-17


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