Du Fu - Toho

Japanese: 杜甫 - とほ

A Chinese poet from the height of the Tang dynasty. His pen name was Zimei. He was called Shaoling because his ancestors were from the place of the same name on the southern outskirts of Chang'an. He was known as the "Saint of Poetry" as China's greatest poet, and as "Li Du" when compared to Li Bai, and as Lao Du or Da Du in comparison to Du Mu of the late Tang dynasty. He was from a small clan whose main residence was Gong County in Henan. His distant ancestor was Du Yu, a great man from the early Jin dynasty, and his grandfather was Du Xinyan, a poet from the early Tang dynasty.

[Yoichi Kurokawa]

biography

He was good at poetry from his boyhood, but failed the imperial examination, so he spent his early 20s in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, and from his late 30s to his mid-30s in Henan and Shandong, where he formed friendships with Li Bai and Gao Shi. At the age of 35, he went to Chang'an and presented a fu to Emperor Xuanzong, but he did not have any employment opportunities and continued to live in poverty and misfortune. In 755, at the age of 44, he was captured by rebel forces during the An Lushan Rebellion and was placed under house arrest in Chang'an for just under a year. He escaped and fled to the new emperor Suzong's residence in Fengxiang (west of Chang'an), where he was awarded the rank of Left Collector for his services. However, shortly after his appointment, he defended the crimes of the fallen prime minister Fang Huan, incurring Suzong's wrath and being suspended from his post. When the government army recovered Chang'an, he was pardoned and returned to government service, but was demoted to a local official position in Huazhou (west of Chang'an) after just one year, and left his post after another year to go to Qinzhou (Tianshui City) in Gansu with his wife and children. After staying in Qinzhou for about four months, he moved south to Tonggu (Chengxian), and at the end of the same year he went to Chengdu in Sichuan and settled there. He was 48 years old at the time. The following spring, he opened a so-called Huanhua Cao Tang on the banks of the Huanhua River on the outskirts of Chengdu.

He temporarily fled to Zizhou and Langzhou in eastern Sichuan due to a rebellion by a local warlord, but his life in Caotang was relatively peaceful for several years. He served his friend Yan Wu's government as a staff officer, and was recommended by Yan Wu to become a public official in the Ministry of Works. That's why he was called Du Wang. At the age of 54, he left Chengdu to return home, traveled down the Yangtze River, and after moving from place to place, he arrived in Kuizhou (Fengjie County) at the eastern end of Sichuan. He lived in Xige along the river, but soon received the support of the governor Bai Maolin and rented official land in Huangxi and Dongtun on the outskirts, where he ran a farm. At the beginning of his 57th year, he put his boat into the Yangtze River and went down the Three Gorges. After that, he continued to wander on the waters of Hubei and Hunan for the next two years, and then died of an illness in Laiyang in Hunan. He was 59 years old. The story that he died from beef and white wine poisoning is a later fabrication and cannot be trusted. There is also a theory that he died on Lake Dongting, but this is also incorrect.

[Yoichi Kurokawa]

Changes and growth in style

According to Du Fu himself, he had already written over 1,000 poems as a young boy, but these poems have not been passed down to posterity; what remains today is only over 1,400 poems and a small number of prose pieces, and as a rule, none of them were written before the age of 30. His poetry from the age of 30 onwards can be divided into four periods based on the remarkable changes and growth in his style. The first period covers up to the age of 44, during which Du Fu turned his attention outwards, and was devoted to faithfully depicting his subjects and denouncing various social ills. "The Red Gate stinks of wine and meat, and on the road lie the bones of the dead" ("Recollections on a Journey from the Capital to Fengxian County, Five Hundred Characters"). The second period was up to the age of 48, during which Du Fu's experience of melancholy during the An Lushan Rebellion caused him to look inward, rather than outward, and while singing about his inner melancholy, he also began to see his own melancholy as one of the many people's. "Knowing that the land of gango is filled with it, stop shining light on the camp in the west of the country" ("Moon"). The poems he wrote during the several years he lived in Chengdu up to the age of 54 took another turn, and his gaze turned to the kindness that nature shows towards humans. "The yearning sparrows fight over the branches and fall, and the flying insects fill the gardens and play" ("Sunset"). The fourth period was the period leading up to his death at the age of 59. The two years he spent in Kuizhou in particular were a time of maturity and prolificacy, leaving behind masterpieces of seven lines such as "Eight Poems for Autumnal Exploration" and "Five Poems for Nostalgic Sites." The new philosophy he acquired, that the world contains many contradictions but will continue forever, makes the poetry of this period heartfelt and warm. "The gains and losses of a chicken cricket never end, I cast my eyes on the cold river and lean on a pavilion" ("Bound Chicken Journey").

[Yoichi Kurokawa]

Characteristics of Morishi

Du Fu's poetry shows the above-mentioned changes in growth, but what makes his poetry consistent is his great sincerity towards humanity. It can be said that the spirit of Chinese literature, which holds that humans must be sincere towards other humans, is at work most actively in this poet's poetry. Based on the melancholy that such sincerity produces, he often took subjects from everyday life, widely excavating new emotions that no other poet had found in the past from human facts, psychology, and natural scenery, and sang about them freely. He poured his heart and soul into expression, saying, "I will not rest even if I die unless I can astonish people with my words" ("It is worth the rise of the waters on the river like the ocean, a short summary"). In the long poems of the ancient style, including his two great masterpieces "Reminiscences on the Journey from the Capital to Fengxian County, 500 Characters" and "Northern Expedition," he mainly demonstrated his social nature, and these are called "poetic histories," meaning history written in poetry, while in the modern style, which is a fixed form of short poems, he was particularly skilled in regulated verse, and was able to express complex emotions in minute detail within strict forms, making him the de facto perfector of this form of poetry. While the poetry of the Six Dynasties and early Tang Dynasties that preceded him had fallen into spiritless ornamentation, and ancient poetry was too simple, Du Fu restored the pure spirit of ancient times and, moreover, entrusted it to mature technique, marking a period in Chinese poetry.

[Yoichi Kurokawa]

Influence on future generations

The first person to discover this poem was Yuan Zhen of the mid-Tang Dynasty in the 9th century, who wrote an epitaph for Du Fu, saying, "Since the time of the poets, there has been no one like Zimei." Bai Juyi was also an admirer of Du Fu, and learned his socially critical poems from Du Fu, but Du Fu's reputation in the poetry world was confirmed in the 11th century with the praise of Wang Anshi, Su Shi, Huang Tingjian, and others of the Northern Song Dynasty. The term "poet saint" seems to have been coined around this time, and he has continued to be described as the epitome of Chinese poetry ever since. Although direct attributions to Du Fu ceased after the Literary Revolution in the Republic of China, his recognition as China's greatest poet remains unshakable even in today's China, with the exception of a period during the Cultural Revolution. It is believed to have been introduced to Japan at the end of the Kamakura period, and a reference to the poem can be found in Kokan Shiren's "Seibokushu." During the Northern and Southern Courts period, three types of Gozan editions of Du's poems were reprinted, and in the Muromachi period, oral commentaries such as Shinka Gentei's "Du Shi Shinka Okudan" and Setsurei Eikin's "Du Shi Sho" were produced, and the influence of the poem can be seen in the "Taiheiki" and Noh plays. During the Edo period, Japanese prints of the "Duritsu Shikkai," a selection of vine styles (annotated by Shao Fu of the Ming Dynasty), and various commentaries based on it, were widely circulated. They had a major influence on the haiku of Basho and others, and also produced other excellent works such as Watarai Sueshige's "Duritsu Hyousou" and Tsuzaka Koushak's "Duritsu Shokai."

[Yoichi Kurokawa]

Texts and annotations

The 60 volumes of the collection that appears in the Old Book of Tang have not been handed down, but the basis for the later Du Collection is the 20 volumes of the Du Gongbu Collection compiled by Wang Su of the Northern Song Dynasty in the 11th century, the edition published in the Southern Song Dynasty that has been passed down to the present day. Among the commentaries, the Annotated Commentary on the Nine Family Writings by Guo Zhida of the Song Dynasty is excellent in its exegesis, the Annotated Commentary on Du Shi by Qian Qianyi of the Qing Dynasty is detailed in historical fact, and the Detailed Annotation of Du Shi by Qiu Zhaoao is a useful collection. The index of the complete works is "Du Shi Yi De" edited by Yenching University, and the biography "Chronology of Mr. Du Shaoling: Notes on the Poems" by Wen Yiduo of the Republic of China is excellent. In addition, the monumental works of Du's poetry research in Japan include "Translation of Du Shaoling's Poetry Collection" by Suzuki Torao, and the unfinished large work "Notes on the Poems of Du Fu" by Yoshikawa Kojiro, and the English biography "Tu Fu" by William Hung.

[Yoichi Kurokawa]

"Du Poetry" by Suzuki Torao and Kurokawa Yoichi, all 8 volumes (Iwanami Bunko)" ▽ "Du Fu: Poetry and Life by Feng Zhi, translated by Hashikawa Tokio (1977, Chikuma Shobo)" ▽ "Du Fu's Private Notes" by Yoshikawa Kojiro (1980, Chikuma Shobo)" ▽ "Collection of Essays on Du Fu" by Yoshikawa Kojiro (1980, Chikuma Shobo)" ▽ "Study of Du Fu" by Kurokawa Yoichi (1977, Sobunsha)" ▽ "Newly Revised Selections of Chinese Poets 3: Du Fu, with Commentary by Kurokawa Yoichi (1983, Iwanami Shoten)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国、唐代盛期の詩人。字(あざな)は子美(しび)。少陵(しょうりょう)とよぶのは、長安南郊の同名の地が先祖の出自であることによる。中国最高の詩人としては「詩聖」、李白(りはく)と並称されては「李杜」、晩唐の杜牧(とぼく)に対しては老杜(ろうと)、大杜(だいと)とよばれる。河南の鞏(きょう)県を本居とする小豪族の出身で、遠祖には晋(しん)初の偉人杜預(どよ)があり、祖父には唐初期の詩人杜審言がある。

［黒川洋一］

伝記

少年時代から詩をよくしたが、科挙の試験に及第せず、20代の前半は江蘇(こうそ)、浙江(せっこう)に、後半から30代のなかばまでは河南、山東に放浪生活を送り、李白や高適(こうせき)と親交を結んだ。35歳のとき長安に出て玄宗皇帝に賦(ふ)を奉るなどしたが、就職の機会は到来せず、貧窮と不遇をかこち続けた。755年、44歳のとき、安禄山(あんろくざん)の乱にあい、賊軍に捕まって、長安に軟禁されること1年弱、脱出して新帝粛宗(しゅくそう)の鳳翔(ほうしょう)（長安の西方）の行在所(あんざいしょ)に馳(は)せ着け、その功によって左拾遺(さしゅうい)を授けられたが、任官早々にして、失脚の宰相房琯(ぼうかん)の罪を弁護して粛宗の怒りを買い、休職処分を受けた。官軍が長安を回復したのに伴い、許されて政府にふたたび出仕したが、1年で華州（長安の西方）の地方官に左遷、それもまた1年で官を棄(す)て、妻子を引き連れて甘粛(かんしゅく)の秦(しん)州（天水市）に赴く。秦州に滞在すること4か月ばかりにして、南の同谷（成県）に移り、さらにその年の末には四川(しせん)の成都に赴き、そこに落ち着く。ときに48歳。翌春、成都郊外の浣花渓(かんかけい)のほとりに、いわゆる浣花草堂を営んだ。

　一時的には地方軍閥の反乱のために東四川の梓(し)州、閬(ろう)州に避難したことがあるが、前後数年にわたる草堂での生活は比較的に平和であり、節度参謀として友人厳武(げんぶ)の幕府に出仕し、その推薦で工部員外郎の官を得たりした。杜工部とよばれるのはそのためである。54歳、帰郷の目的をもって成都を離れ、揚子江(ようすこう)を下って、所々を転々としたのち、四川東端の夔(き)州（奉節県）に至り、川沿いの西閣に居住したが、まもなく都督柏茂林(はくもりん)の援助を得て、郊外の瀼西(じょうせい)、東屯(とうとん)に官田を借りて農園を営んだ。57歳の初め、舟を揚子江に放って三峡を下り、以後2年の間、湖北、湖南の水上をさまよい続けたのち、湖南の耒陽(らいよう)において病死した。ときに59歳。牛肉と白酒による中毒が死因となったとするのは、後代の作り話であり、信は置けない。また一説に、亡くなった所を洞庭湖上とするが、それも誤りである。

［黒川洋一］

詩風の変化成長

杜甫自身の語るところによれば、すでに少年にして1000余編の詩を有していたというが、それらの詩は後世には伝わらず、いまに伝わるものは1400余編の詩と、少数の散文にとどまり、それも原則として30歳以前のものを欠落する。30歳以後の詩は、その顕著な詩風の変化成長のうえから、四つの時期に分けることができる。44歳までが第1期で、この時期の杜甫は目を外に向け、対象の忠実な写生と、さまざまの社会悪の告発に熱心である。「朱門には酒肉臭(くさ)れるに、路(みち)には凍死の骨あり」（「京より奉先県に赴くときの詠懐、五百字」）。48歳までが第2期で、この時期の杜甫は、安禄山の乱時における憂愁の体験により、従来は外へ向かいがちであった視線を、自己の内部へと食い入らせ、内心の憂愁を歌うとともに、自己の憂愁を多くの人々の憂愁の一つとしてとらえるようになる。「干戈(かんか)の地に満つるを知る、国西の営を照らすことを休(や)めよ」（「月」）。54歳までの成都に居住した数年間の詩は、また一つの転回を遂げ、熟視は自然が人間に向かって示す善意へと向けられる。「啅雀(とうじゃく)は枝を争って墜(お)ち、飛虫は院に満ちて遊ぶ」（「落日」）。59歳の死に至るまでが第4期で、とくに夔州に滞在した2年間は、円熟多作のときであり、「秋興八首」「詠懐古跡五首」などの七律の名作を残しているが、この世界は多くの矛盾を含みつつも永遠に持続するとする新しい哲学の獲得は、この時期の詩を、しみじみとした温かいものとする。「鶏虫の得失は了(おわ)る時無し、目を寒江に注いで山閣に倚(よ)る」（「縛鶏行」）。

［黒川洋一］

杜詩の特色

杜甫の詩には以上のような成長変化がみられるが、一貫してその詩を成立させるものは、人間に対する大きな誠実である。人間は人間に対して誠実でなければならないとする中国文学の精神は、この詩人の詩のなかにもっとも活発に働いているということができる。そうした誠実の生む憂愁をもとにして、日常生活に多く題材をとり、広く人間の事実や心理、自然の風景のなかから、それまでの詩人がみいだせなかった新しい感動を発掘してそれを縦横に歌ったが、表現には精魂を傾け尽くし、「語の人を驚かさずんば死すとも休(や)めじ」（「江上に水の海勢の如(ごと)くなるに値(あ)い、聊(いささ)か短述す」）という。「京より奉先県に赴くときの詠懐、五百字」「北征」の二大傑作を含む長編の古体では、主として社会性を発揮し、詩でつづる歴史という意味で「詩史」とよばれ、短詩定型の今体ではとくに律詩に長じ、厳しい型式のなかに複雑な感情を細密に歌い込め、この詩型の事実上の完成者としての栄誉を担った。彼に先だつ六朝(りくちょう)・初唐の詩が、精神を失った装飾に堕し、また古代の詩が素朴にすぎるのに対し、杜甫は古代の純粋な精神を回復し、しかもそれを成熟した技巧に託して、中国の詩に一時期を画した。

［黒川洋一］

後世への影響

その詩の最初の発見者は、9世紀、中唐の元稹(げんしん)であり、元稹は杜甫のために墓誌銘を書き、「詩人以来、未だ子美のごとき者はあらず」といっている。白居易(はくきょい)も杜甫の崇拝者で、その社会批判の詩は杜甫に学んだものであるが、杜甫の評価が詩壇に確定をみるのは、11世紀、北宋(ほくそう)の王安石、蘇軾(そしょく)、黄庭堅(こうていけん)らの称揚による。「詩聖」の語もこのころに生まれたもののようであり、以来中国の詩の典型として祖述され続ける。民国の文学革命以後、その直接の祖述はやんだとはいえ、中国最高の詩人としての認識は、文化大革命期の一時期を例外として、今日の中国でも依然として揺るがない。日本への渡来は、鎌倉末期と推定され、虎関師錬(こかんしれん)の『済北(せいほく)集』にその詩句への言及がみえる。南北朝時代には3種の五山版杜詩の翻刻をみ、室町時代に入っては、心華元棣(しんかげんてい)の『杜詩心華臆断(おくだん)』や雪嶺永瑾(せつれいえいきん)の『杜詩抄』などの口釈書が生まれるとともに、『太平記』や謡曲のなかにその詩句の影響が現れる。江戸時代には律体の選本である『杜律集解(とりつしっかい)』（明(みん)の邵傅(しょうふ)注）の和刻本や、それに基づく各種の注解書が広く流布し、芭蕉(ばしょう)らの俳諧(はいかい)に大きな影響を与えたほか、渡会末茂(わたらいすえしげ)の『杜律評叢(ひょうそう)』、津阪孝綽(つざかこうしゃく)の『杜律詳解』などの優れた仕事を生んだ。

［黒川洋一］

テキスト・注釈書

『旧唐書(くとうじょ)』にみえる集60巻は後に伝わらず、後世の杜集のもととなったものは、11世紀、北宋の王洙(おうしゅ)編『杜工部集』20巻であり、その南宋刊本がいまに伝わる。注釈書のうち、宋の郭知達(かくちたつ)の『九家集註(しっちゅう)』は訓詁(くんこ)に優れ、清(しん)の銭謙益(せんけんえき)の『杜詩箋注(せんちゅう)』は史実に詳しく、仇兆鰲(きゅうちょうごう)の『杜詩詳注』は集大成として便利である。全集の索引としては燕京(えんきょう)大学編の『杜詩引得』があり、伝記としては民国の聞一多(ぶんいった)の『杜少陵先生年譜会箋(かいせん)』が優れる。また、わが国における杜詩研究の金字塔としては、鈴木虎雄(とらお)の『杜少陵詩集訳解』のほか、吉川幸次郎の『杜甫詩注』の未完の大著があり、英語による伝記としては、William Hungの『Tu Fu』がある。

［黒川洋一］

『鈴木虎雄・黒川洋一著『杜詩』全8冊（岩波文庫）』▽『馮至著、橋川時雄訳『杜甫　詩と生涯』（1977・筑摩書房）』▽『吉川幸次郎著『杜甫私記』（1980・筑摩書房）』▽『吉川幸次郎著『杜甫論集』（1980・筑摩書房）』▽『黒川洋一著『杜甫の研究』（1977・創文社）』▽『黒川洋一注『新修中国詩人選集3　杜甫』（1983・岩波書店）』

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

<<: To Hoai (English spelling)

>>: Topeng (English spelling) topeng [Jawa]