Sewing - Saiho

Japanese: 裁縫 - さいほう

Cutting and sewing together fabric to make clothes. Sewing. After the Meiji period, when Western sewing techniques were introduced, it came to be called "Japanese sewing" and "Western sewing". In the old days, it was called "monodachi", "mononui", "ohari" and "needlework". The tunic and kesa-shiki robes worn by Japanese people around the 3rd century were simple sewing. However, the robes presented by Himiko of Yamatai to Wei are said to be hemp upper garments stuffed with silk. During the reign of Emperor Ojin (4th-5th century), the king of Baekje presented women who were seamstresses, and during the reign of Emperor Yuryaku (5th century), he invited Ehime and Otohime, who were seamstresses, from Wu. Through exchanges with China and Korea, it is believed that the two-piece northern clothing was adopted and sewing techniques were introduced. In the 7th and 8th centuries, influenced by Sui and Tang-style clothing sewing, the technique made great advances in technology. The tailoring techniques for twill and fine linen robes preserved in the Shosoin Repository are extremely sophisticated. According to the Taiho Code (701), the Nuido-ryo (Sewage Department) was located in the Ministry of Central Affairs as a sewing place in the Imperial Court, and the Nuibe-no-tsukasa (Sewage Department) was located in the Ministry of Finance. The Utsubo Monogatari (Tales of the Utsubo) from the late 10th century describes sewing in groups at sewing places, indicating that production of goods for exchange began to shift from self-production. From the late Heian period to the Kamakura period, as the shift from soft costumes to heavy costumes occurred, the sophistication of the technique was lost due to the stiff sewing of thick fabrics. This trend extended from the attire of ladies-in-waiting to the samurai clothing of the Edo period. In the 16th century, the customs of the Southern Barbarians were partially adopted, and curved cutting and sewing were used, leading to the creation of innovative designs for jinbaori and other garments. Until the early modern period, when cotton became widespread, the clothing of the common people was mainly made of linen, and was sewn using a long needle and a simple, grabbed stitch.

Later, in the Edo period, as economically powerful townspeople emerged, clothing for the general public became abundant and sewing techniques also improved. Daughters received instruction at home from their parents, or from needlework masters or temple schools, through example and oral tradition. In this period, sewing was considered a must-know for women, and was also a qualification for marriage. In books such as "Jokunmono" and "Onnashikimoku," sewing is listed as one of the women's ways. Meanwhile, the Yamashina and Takakura families were in charge of preparing attire for the nobles. The Gofuku-no-ma served the Ooku and were in charge of sewing clothes for the Shogun and his wife, while the Gofuku-sho supplied the daimyo and noble families. Onmonoshi and Shinmyo were employed women who did needlework. Sewing shops and tailors were male craftsmen, and there were tailors who specialized in making haori, obi, and hakama. There were also clothing shops that made monk's robes, but nuns at temples also did sewing. Some tabi shops also made hakama, hanten, belly wraps, and hand guards.

[Kazuko Okano]

Japanese dressmaking

Japanese clothing is cut in straight lines, which makes it easy to cut with a consistent fit, but until the mid-Edo period, the width of the cloth was not uniform, ranging from 9 sun to over 2 shaku, so it was considered extremely difficult to find a cutting method that would not produce waste fabric. Sewing books published after "Saibutsu Hidensho" in 1690 (Genroku 3) are mostly made up of cutting diagrams. Sewing books were written by men, and their contents are thought to have been used by professional tailors, but some published at the end of the Edo period are thought to be aimed at the general public. In 1872 (Meiji 5), a handicrafts department was established for girls in ordinary elementary schools, and then a sewing department was established in the Elementary School Education Act issued in 1879, and since then, sewing education has been emphasized in elementary and secondary education. After World War II, the spread of Western clothing led to a decline in Japanese sewing education, and sewing at home is also decreasing. Currently, there is a certification system for Japanese sewing skills run by the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare.

[Kazuko Okano]

Dressmaking

The need for Western sewing arose when the country opened up to foreigners at the end of the Edo period, foreign settlements were established, and Westerners began to live there, and Western-style military uniforms were adopted. Between 1870 and 1871 (Meiji 3-4), the uniforms of the army and navy, government officials, police officers, postal workers, and railroad workers were all Westernized, and the following year, an edict from the Dajokan (Grand Council of State) was issued stating that all formal attire, except for the ceremonial attire, would be Westernized. Tailors of sleeves and hakama, etc., were made by Nagamono-shi (Japanese clothing tailors), tabi-shi, houe-ya (court robes), kane-ya (second-hand clothing stores), and bag makers. In 1864 (Genji 1), Numa-no-Moriichi, who delivered the requisition haori and danbukuro worn by soldiers in the Choshu Expedition, is said to have disassembled second-hand British military uniforms to create prototype patterns.

In 1883, Rokumei-kan was opened as part of the government's Europeanization policy, and an era of imitation of Western clothing began among upper-class women and girls. At that time, teachers and students at Tokyo Women's Normal School were the pioneers in wearing Western clothing. In response to the demand for Western clothing, kimono shops Echigoya (now Mitsukoshi Department Store) and Shirokiya (later Tokyu Department Store Nihonbashi branch; closed in January 1999) hired foreign seamstresses and set up Western clothing departments. At the Hakuraiya store that opened in the Yokohama settlement, foreign Western tailors were in charge of sewing, but to meet the increase in orders, Japanese craftsmen were recruited and trained, and some of the people who learned the skills there went on to open their own clothing stores in Yokohama, then in Tokyo and Kobe. The Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars created a need for the production of large quantities of military uniforms, and Western clothing was worn at subsequent celebrations, balls, and garden parties, stimulating the advancement of Western-style dressmaking techniques.

In 1862 (Bunkyu 2), Mrs. Brown, a missionary, opened a women's clothing store in Yokohama, where she trained many pioneers in the Japanese Western clothing industry, including Sawano Tatsugoro, who learned sewing techniques and how to use a sewing machine. In addition to those who received direct instruction from foreigners, there were also cases of people who learned the techniques on their own. From the early to mid-Meiji period, those who opened their own Western clothing businesses trained apprentices. They learned the techniques by watching the master's work and by instinct, and were able to become independent after serving as a thank-you servant after the end of their contract. The sewing machine was first brought back by Nakahama Manjiro (John Manjiro) who went to the United States as an interpreter for the Japanese Embassy in 1860 (Man'en 1). It was later purchased by Uemura Kugoro, a clothing store owner in Shiba, Tokyo, who used it to make military uniforms and other things. In 1868 (Keio 4), Kaiseisho, which had been established by the shogunate, placed an advertisement in the Chugai Shimbun announcing that it would "provide training in modern Western sewing equipment and take orders for tailoring." In 1871 (Meiji 4), a tailoring bureau was established within Keio Gijuku, which later moved to Maruzen's Western clothing department. The following year, a German woman named Ms. Seisen opened a dressmaking school for Japanese women and girls in the Tsukiji settlement, and training schools then spread to other areas.

In 1873, Katsuyama Rikimatsu's Kaifuku Tailoring Beginner's Guide was published as the first Western sewing book. It contains detailed instructions on how to cut formal wear (swallowtails), casual wear (frock coats), Daruma wear (stiff collars), and suits using whale scales. This was followed in 1878 by Harada Shinjiro's translation of Western Sewing Instruction Book, which introduces measurements, drafting, drawing methods for Grajeux scales (proportional scales) and inch scales, and corrections. In the 1880s, works such as Men's and Women's Western Clothing Sewing Guide were published in response to trends in women's Western clothing. It was also around this time that the first fashion magazines were published. Military uniforms, official uniforms, and school uniforms were adopted for men's Western clothing, so ready-made clothes were produced to meet the large demand from the early Meiji period onwards. However, women's clothing was mainly made to order as it was for upper class society, and ready-made clothes were first made for nursing uniforms during the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars.

In the mid-Taisho period, a movement to improve living standards arose, and Western clothing became popular for schoolgirl uniforms, sportswear, some professional women's clothing, children's clothing, and underwear. The Great Kanto Earthquake (1923) and the Shirokiya fire (1931) served as catalysts for the trend toward Western clothing. In response to this, the Singer Sewing School was first established at the end of the Meiji period to promote Western dressmaking education, and from the end of the Taisho period to the Showa period, dressmaking schools were established all over the country. Dressmaking was also included in textbooks at girls' schools. In the early Showa period, the first style book, "Fashion Culture," was published, and Western dressmaking was featured in the supplements of women's magazines, making it easier for home dressmaking. After World War II, a revolutionary shift from Japanese clothing to Western clothing took place, and Western modes were actively introduced and new dressmaking techniques were developed. In secondary education, the use of patterns is being attempted to simplify dressmaking. Currently, there are certification systems for dressmaking skills implemented by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, such as for men's clothing manufacturing (custom-made clothing, ready-made clothing) and women's and children's clothing manufacturing (same as above).

[Kazuko Okano]

Folklore

Before the Meiji era, when sewing was not a school subject, women learned sewing skills from tailors in town or from local women during the farming off-season. Since sewing was a major role for women in life, they competed to hone their skills. Therefore, there are many known customs of praying for improvement in needlework. First, at the start of work in the New Year, in the coastal region of Kanagawa, a small triangular bag called a hiuchi is made on the 2nd, the first day of sewing. It is then hung on a bamboo pole on the 14th for burning, and is an event to pray for improvement in needlework. Also, on Tanabata, a well-known custom in various regions is to make a kimono model and hang it on the eaves or on the bamboo pole for Tanabata, and pray to the weaver girl. Harikuyo is said to be a day to give thanks for the needles we use every day, and is celebrated on February 8th in the Kanto region and December 8th in the Kansai region and west, but in some regions it is celebrated on January 16th (Nagano Prefecture) or Koushin Day (Yamaguchi Prefecture). Broken needles are stuck into konjac or tofu and offered at Awashima Shrine. Of course, no needlework is done on the day. This event is thought to have originated after the Edo period, and became especially popular after the tailoring profession was established in towns.

There are many popular beliefs and taboos associated with sewing. There are sayings to be chanted when choosing a day to cut cloth, when untangling threads, when you lose a needle, when sewing while wearing a kimono, and so on. "Don't cut on the day of the tiger or the eighth day, your sleeves will always overflow with tears" is a proverb for choosing a time to cut, but many have been made into waka poems to make them easier to remember. "Kaikiri-sari" means cutting the cloth on the same day you buy it, and "hippari-ni" means sewing one thing with two people or sewing without tying the end of the thread. These are taboos in needlework, but all of these were customs used when sewing kimonos for the dead at funerals, so they were avoided in everyday life. Other taboos included using a needle just before going out, sewing while naked, using a needle in the morning, lending a needle to someone, and going to buy a needle at night. Although it is similar to the "debari" needle, in fishing villages in Shikoku and Kyushu, using a needle before setting sail is avoided. When sewing or attaching the sleeves of a kimono, it was believed that both sleeves should be sewn with the same light, and it was unacceptable to do so by day and night light. In other words, if work was stopped on only one sleeve, it was said that the kimono would bring misfortune. Similarly, when attaching a collar, it was said that happiness would slip away if the work was stopped midway. Another widely known custom is to first place the completed kimono on a pillar.

[Hisako Maruyama]

"Horikoshi Sumi, 'Documents on the History of Japanese Clothing Sewing' (1974, Yuzankaku Publishing)" ▽ "Sekine Masataka, 'Study of Nara Period Clothing' (1974, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Clothing Industry Press Club, Japan Clothing History Publication Committee, 'Japan Clothing History - Progress of a Century and Future Outlook' (1977)"

Master of Commerce
During the Edo period, women who were employed to do needlework, such as omonoshi and harinjo, appeared. "Hyakunin Joro Shinjo" Volume 1, illustrated by Nishikawa Sukenobu, published in 1723 (Kyoho 8), held at the National Diet Library .

Master of Commerce

Tailor
Tailor. "Shokunin-zukushi Ekotoba" (Illustrated Tales of Artisans), second scroll (part) The original is by Kuwagata Keisai (Masami Kitao), with a note by Kyokaen (Shuzanjin) ( Owned by the National Diet Library )

Tailor

Matsusai Ginko's "A Picture of a Lady Sewing"
The upper class ladies of the Meiji period who gathered at Rokumeikan all learned Western dressmaking. 1887 (Meiji 20) National Diet Library

Matsusai Ginko's "A Picture of a Lady Sewing"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

衣服を仕立てるために用布を裁断し、縫い合わせること。縫い物。明治以降、洋服裁縫の技術が導入されてから、和裁、洋裁と区別してよぶようになった。古くは「物裁(ものだ)ち」「物縫い」「お針」「針仕事」などといった。3世紀ごろの日本人が着ていた貫頭衣(かんとうい)、袈裟(けさ)式衣は簡単な裁縫であった。しかし邪馬台(やまたい)国の卑弥呼(ひみこ)が魏(ぎ)に献じた緜衣(めんい)は、真綿を入れて仕立てた麻の上衣といわれる。応神(おうじん)天皇のとき（4～5世紀）に百済(くだら)王が衣縫工女(きぬぬいおみな)を献じ、雄略(ゆうりゃく)天皇のとき（5世紀）には呉(ご)より衣縫の兄媛(えひめ)・弟媛(おとひめ)を招請している。中国、朝鮮との交流により、二部式の北方系衣服を採用するとともに、裁縫技術の導入も図ったとみられる。7、8世紀には隋(ずい)・唐風の衣服裁縫の影響を受け、技術面で飛躍的進歩を遂げた。正倉院に残る綾(あや)や、細糸の麻の袍(ほう)の仕立て技術は精巧を極めている。大宝令(たいほうりょう)（701）によると、宮中の裁縫所として中務(なかつかさ)省に縫殿寮(ぬいどのりょう)、大蔵省に縫部司(ぬいべのつかさ)が置かれていた。10世紀後半の『うつほ物語』には、縫物所で集団で縫製する記述があり、自家生産から交換商品の生産が行われ始めたのがわかる。平安時代後期から鎌倉時代にかけて、柔(なえ)装束から強(こわ)装束に移行すると、こわばった厚地の裁縫により技術の精緻さは失われた。この傾向は、女房装束から江戸時代の武家衣服にも及んでいる。16世紀になると南蛮風俗を部分的に取り入れて、曲線の裁断、縫製も行われ、陣羽織などのデザインに斬新(ざんしん)なものが生まれた。庶民衣料は、木綿が普及する近世まで麻が主で、長針を用いた、つかみ縫いの簡粗な裁縫であった。

　その後、江戸時代になり経済力をもつ町人が出現すると、一般の衣服も豊富になり、裁縫技術も進展をみせた。娘たちは家庭において、その親から、または、お針師匠のもとや寺子屋に通って、示範、口伝による指導を受けた。この時代には裁縫は女子の必修の業とされ、嫁入りの資格でもあった。「女訓物(じょくんもの)」「女式目(おんなしきもく)」などでは裁縫を婦道の一つにあげている。一方、公家(くげ)装束のためには山科(やましな)家、高倉家がその調進にあたっていた。呉服間(ごふくのま)は大奥に仕えて、将軍、御台所(みだいどころ)の衣服の裁縫をつかさどり、呉服所は大名や高家の御用達をした。御物師(おんものし)、針女(しんみょう)は雇われて針仕事をする女であった。物縫屋、仕立物屋などは男職人で、羽織、帯、袴(はかま)の類は、これを専業とする仕立屋が存在した。僧衣を仕立てる衣屋(ころもや)もあったが、寺院の尼僧も裁縫を行った。足袋(たび)屋のなかには、股引(ももひき)、半纏(はんてん)、腹掛け、手甲(てっこう)などをも仕立てるところがあった。

［岡野和子］

和裁

和服は直線裁ちで、一定の裁ち合わせができる簡便さがあるが、江戸時代中期までは反物の幅尺が一定でなく、9寸から2尺余りまで各種あったため、むだ布を出さない裁断法は至難とされた。1690年（元禄3）刊行の『裁物秘伝抄』以後の裁縫書も、大部分が裁図で占められている。裁縫書は男性の著述になり、内容的にみて専門の仕立職人が用いたとみられるが、江戸時代末期刊行のものには一般向きとみられるものもある。1872年（明治5）には尋常小学校の女児に手芸科が置かれ、ついで1879年発布の小学校教育令で裁縫科が設けられ、以来、初等・中等教育において裁縫教育が重視されてきた。第二次世界大戦後は、洋服の普及で和裁教育は低下し、家庭における裁縫も減少しつつある。現在、和裁の技術について、東京商工会議所と厚生労働省で実施している検定制度がある。

［岡野和子］

洋裁

洋服裁縫の必要が生じたのは、幕末の開国によって外国人居留地が設けられ、滞在する西洋人が出てきたことと、洋式軍服が採用されたことによる。1870～1871年（明治3～4）にかけて陸海軍服、官公吏制服、警察官、郵便配達員、鉄道員服などが相次いで洋式となり、翌年には太政官(だじょうかん)布告によって、礼服は衣冠を祭服(さいふく)として残すほか、すべて洋装とする旨が達せられた。筒袖(つつそで)、股引などの仕立てにあたったのは長物師（和服仕立師）、足袋職、法衣(ほうえ)屋、更衣屋（古着屋）、袋物職人たちであった。1864年（元治1）長州征伐の兵が着用したレキション羽織と段袋(だんぶくろ)を納めた沼間守一は、イギリス軍人の古服を解体して型紙を試作したといわれる。

　1883年には、政府の欧化政策により鹿鳴(ろくめい)館が開設され、上流階級の婦女子の間に洋装模倣時代が生まれた。そのころ東京女子師範学校では教員・生徒が洋服着用の先鞭(せんべん)をつけた。洋服の需要に応じて呉服屋の越後屋（現、三越百貨店）、白木(しろき)屋（後、東急百貨店日本橋店。1999年1月閉店）呉服店では、外国人の裁縫師を雇い入れて洋服部を設けた。横浜の居留地に開かれた舶来屋では、外国人西洋服師が裁縫にあたったが、注文増加に応ずるため日本の職人を募って養成し、そこで技術を習得した人々のなかから、独立して横浜に、ついで東京、神戸に洋服屋を開く者が出た。日清(にっしん)、日露の両戦役では大量の軍服製作の必要に迫られ、その後の祝賀会、舞踏会、園遊会では競って洋服が着用され、洋裁技術の進歩を促した。

　1862年（文久2）宣教師夫人ブラウンは横浜に婦人洋服店を開いたが、ここで婦人服の裁縫技術、ミシン使用法を学んだ沢野辰五郎(たつごろう)をはじめ、彼女によって多くの日本洋装界の先覚者が育成された。このように外国人より直接指導を受けた者のほか、独学で技術を身につけた例もある。明治初期から中期にかけて、独立して洋装業を開いた者は徒弟を養成した。親方の仕事ぶりをみながら勘で技術を習得する方法がとられ、年季終了後お礼奉公をしてから独立することができた。ミシンは1860年（万延1）に、遣米使節の通詞(つうじ)として渡米した中浜万次郎（ジョン万次郎）が初めて持ち帰り、その後、東京・芝の洋服屋植村久五郎に買い取られ、軍服調製などに使用されたという。1868年（慶応4）には幕府の開設した開成所から、「西洋新式縫物器機伝習と仕立物の注文を受ける」との広告が『中外新聞』に出されている。1871年（明治4）には慶応義塾内において仕立局が設けられ、これはのちに丸善洋服部に移った。翌年ドイツ人サイゼン女史により、築地(つきじ)居留地で日本婦女子のための洋裁学校が誕生し、ついで各地にも教習所が広まった。

　1873年には勝山力松による『改服裁縫初心伝』が、最初の洋服裁縫書として刊行された。これには、礼服（燕尾(えんび)服）、平服（フロックコート）・達磨(だるま)服（詰め襟）、背広服などの裁ち方が、鯨(くじら)尺により詳述されている。ついで1878年には『西洋裁縫教授書』が原田新次郎訳で出版され、採寸、製図、グラジュー尺（比例尺）とインチ尺の図引法、補正などが紹介されている。明治20年代になると、女性の洋服流行から『男女西洋服裁縫独(ひとり)案内』などが刊行された。最初の服装雑誌が刊行されたのもこのころである。男子洋服は軍服、官服、制服が採用されたため、大量な需要による既製服が明治初期からつくられたが、婦人服は上流社会のものとして注文仕立てが主で、日清・日露戦争の際の看護服に、初めて既製服が生まれた。

　大正時代中期になると生活改善運動が起こり、洋服は女学生の制服、運動服、一部職業婦人服、子供服、肌着などに広まり、関東大震災（1923）、白木屋の大火（1931）などを契機として、洋服化の機運が高まった。これに伴い洋裁教育普及のため、明治末期にまずシンガー裁縫院が設立され、大正末から昭和になると各地に洋裁学校がつくられた。また女学校においても洋裁が教科書に採用された。昭和の初期には最初のスタイルブック『服装文化』が出版され、女性雑誌の付録に洋裁が扱われ、家庭洋裁の便に供された。第二次世界大戦後、和服より洋服への革命的転換期を迎えたが、積極的に欧米のモードを導入するとともに、新しい洋裁技術を開発している。中等教育の場では、型紙使用による洋裁の簡易化が図られている。現在、洋裁の技能について、厚生労働省で実施している紳士服製造（注文服、既製服）、婦人子供服製造（同前）などの検定制度がある。

［岡野和子］

民俗

明治以前、学校の教科に入らないころは、農閑期に街の仕立屋とか近所の婦人などについて裁縫の技を習った。裁縫は女性にとって生涯の大きな役目であったから、競って技を磨いた。したがって針仕事の上達を祈願する風習は数多く知られている。まず、正月の仕事始めであるが、神奈川の沿海地方では2日の縫い初(ぞ)めに、ヒウチという小さな三角の袋をこしらえる。そしてそれは14日のサイト焼きの竹に吊(つ)るしておいて焼くのであるが、針仕事の上達を願っての行事である。また、七夕(たなばた)には着物の雛型(ひながた)をこしらえて、軒端(のきば)や七夕の竹に吊るして織女を対象として祈ったのは、各地でよく知られた風習である。針供養(はりくよう)は、日ごろ使った針に感謝する日といわれ、関東では2月8日、関西以西は12月8日というが、地方によっては1月16日（長野県）とか庚申(こうしん)の日（山口県）としている所もある。こんにゃくや豆腐に折れ針を刺し、淡島神社に納める。もちろん当日は針仕事はしない。この行事は江戸時代以後におこったものと考えられ、とくに街に仕立屋という職業ができてのちに盛んになったものと思われる。

　裁縫に伴う禁忌俗信も多い。布を裁つ日を選ぶとか、糸のもつれを解くとき、針をなくしたとき、着物を着たまま縫うときなどに唱えることばなどが伝わっている。「寅(とら)と八日にもの裁つな、いつも袖(そで)に涙あふるる」などは裁つときを選ぶ際の諺(ことわざ)であるが、和歌の形として覚えやすくしたものも多い。買い切り裁ちとは、布を買ったその日のうちに裁つこと、ひっぱり縫いは、2人で一つのものを縫うことや糸の尻(しり)を結ばずに縫うことで、これらは針仕事のタブーであるが、どれも葬式のとき死者の着物を縫うときの習俗なので、平常は嫌ったのである。また出針(でばり)といって外出直前に針を使うこと、裸で物を縫うこと、朝、針を使うこと、人に針を貸すこと、夜、針を買いに行くことも禁忌であった。出針と同類であるが、四国・九州の漁村では、出船に先だって針を使うことは嫌う。着物の袖を縫ったり、袖付けをするとき、両袖を同じ明かりで縫うべきものとされ、昼と夜の明かりですることは嫌った。つまり袖の片方だけで仕事を中断すると、その着物は不幸をもたらすといわれていた。衿(えり)付けも同様、途中でやめると幸福が逃げてしまうといわれている。できあがった着物を、まず柱に着せるという着はじめの習俗も広く知られている。

［丸山久子］

『堀越すみ著『資料日本衣服裁縫史』（1974・雄山閣出版）』▽『関根真隆著『奈良朝服飾の研究』（1974・吉川弘文館）』▽『洋服業界記者クラブ日本洋服史刊行委員会編・刊『日本洋服史――1世紀の歩みと未来展望』（1977）』