Gagaku

Japanese: 雅楽 - ががく

Music that originated in ancient China and spread widely to Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other countries. Meaning "elegant music," it was used to add solemnity to the nation and is distinguished from "popular music" that was popular among the common people. It is formal music used in ceremonies and festivals at the imperial court and temples and shrines, and often uses large-scale instrument arrangements and is accompanied by singing and dancing. Under the influence of Chinese culture and ideology, each country created its own unique field, and each ethnic group also uses its own native instruments. It has now declined in China and is passed down in other countries.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

Gagaku in China and Korea

Chinese Gagaku

In the narrow sense, it refers to music performed in rituals at the Tenchi Shrine based on Confucian thought, but in a broader sense it also includes music for banquets and entertainment at the imperial court.

The name Gagaku originated from the Spring and Autumn Period, when Confucius (552-479 BC) referred to the music of the states of Zheng and Wei as Zheng Sheng, and the music said to have been composed by Emperor Shun and King Wen and King Wu of Zhou as Ga Sheng, with particular respect for the latter. Legend has it that during the reign of King Wen and King Wu of Zhou (12th century BC), the dances of Wen and Wu were already established, and a grand ensemble was performed featuring six tunes and six rhythms, five tones, eight sounds and six dances. During the Warring States Period, amidst the many competing schools of thought, Confucians advocated the idea of ritual and music that valued etiquette and benevolence as the highest virtue, and positioned Gagaku as orthodox music that expressed this ideology. At that time, there were three types of music: "Byosaigaku" for worshiping ancestors, "Koushigaku" for worshiping the gods of heaven, earth, and nature, and "Enkyogaku" for entertainment by the imperial court. It is said that about 20 kinds of musical instruments were used, including the koto (zither), bells (shou), se (single strings), kei (lighting chimes), kan (pipes), yaku (bows), sho (she), chi (chi), fu (cans), huang (rings), gyo (bows), and ko (drums). These instruments were linked to the Confucian theory of yin and yang and the five elements, and were divided into eight types according to the materials they were made of, according to the eight elements that make up the universe: metal, stone, silk, bamboo, sack, earth, leather, and wood. These are called "Eight Sounds." The First Emperor of Qin implemented a policy of unifying education and culture, causing Gagaku to stagnate for a time, but in the succeeding Han dynasty, Gaozu of the Former Han dynasty (reigned 206-195 BC) restored the music used in Zhou-style ancestral temple ceremonies and established an agency in charge of Gagaku called the Taigakusho, which established Gagaku as an institution. After that, successive emperors worked to supplement and improve the collection of music, and Emperor Zhang of the Later Han dynasty (reigned 75-88) established the "Music of the Six Dynasties" as suburban ritual music to praise the virtues of six emperors, including Emperor Huangdi, Emperor Yao, and Emperor Shun. Around this time, new instruments such as the biwa and koto, which were introduced from the west, were added to the various instruments introduced from the Zhou dynasty, and a total of about 30 types of instruments were used, and song and dance, which had been separate under the Zhou dynasty, began to be performed along with instrumental music. From the Three Kingdoms period through the Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and Sui dynasties, political instability meant that gagaku did not develop. In the Southern Song dynasty, Emperor Wu (reigned 420-422), Emperor Wen (reigned 424-453) and Emperor Xiaowu (reigned 453-464) attempted to revive gagaku, and in the Sui dynasty, Niu Hong adopted gagaku from the Song and Qi dynasties in 589, but this had little effect. Instead, progress was made in banquet music (later known as Yan music), which was a fusion of Western Regions music and Korean music that had been introduced to take advantage of the national upheaval and was highly esteemed at the imperial court.

It was during the Tang dynasty that gagaku enriched its content as an international form of music. Gagaku from the Tang dynasty included banquet music (gagaku in the narrow sense) used for state events, Hu music, which incorporated music from the northern Dong Hu people as entertainment for the imperial court, and folk music, which had been unique to China since the Han dynasty. It is said that this folk music from the Tang dynasty was introduced to Japan as gagaku. The first emperor, Gaozu (reigned 618-626), created the "Twelve Harmonies" in 626, a collection of 12 pieces including "Yohe," "Shunhe," and "Eihe" (known as "Great Tang Gagaku"). Emperor Xuanzong (reigned 713-755) perfected this by adding three more pieces, "Kaihe," "Hohe," and "Xuanhe," in 718. This gagaku was considered the pinnacle of the Tang dynasty and is particularly known as "Kaiyuan Gagaku." According to the Yuan dynasty book "Wuen Tongkao," this gagaku was performed in alternation between "Touka" and "Gakuken," the former of which was mainly singing with instrumental ensemble, and the latter of which required a total of 300 people to combine dance and instrumental music. Of these, Touka was bestowed upon Korea, and it is believed that Korean gagaku today continues this ancient system. In addition, the theory of seven tones, twelve tunes, and eighty-four tones, devised by the Sui music official Zheng Baek (540-591), was newly perfected during the Tang dynasty by incorporating a dozen or so tone names from Hu music and Zu music. This means that a tone is defined by a certain seven-tone scale called "Ritsu," and all of the scale names of "Ritsu" are based on the following basic scales: Gong, Shang, Kaku, Hensho, Zhou, Yu, and Henkyo. This theory states that for each tune, there are always seven possible tunings, such as Miyacho, Shocho, and Kakucho, which are created with each note as the tonic, and that for the twelve tunes, there are seven times as many possible 8-4 tunings. A part of this theory was brought to Japan and became the "Rokucho" of gagaku.

The "Twelve Harmonies" of the Tang Dynasty was interpreted as "Twelve Shun" during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, and as "Twelve An" during the Song Dynasty, with the titles and content of pieces such as "Gao An," "Ri An," and "Jing An" being completely renewed. Furthermore, Hu music and Zoku music were collectively referred to as Yan music, and in the narrow sense, it became clear that they were distinct from Gagaku. Yan music was often performed along with song and dance at ancestral temple ceremonies. Emperor Shenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty (reigned 1067-1085) established "Da Shengaku" as a new form of Gagaku, and later the Da Shengakufu was established to teach this music. The Northern and Southern Song Dynasties were also periods when Gagaku research was advanced, with imperially selected music books being compiled, and Cai Yuanding of the Southern Song Dynasty wrote "Yen Music Book" and "Ryū Lu Xin Shu." In particular, there was lively discussion about musical scales, and the scales were revised and new instruments such as the ruanqin were invented to match them. During the Yuan Dynasty, when the northern peoples founded the country, Kublai Khan tried to play gagaku, but it did not take root. In the early Ming Dynasty, "Taira" and "Jiaosaigaku" were established (1368), and gagaku that was linked to the traditions of the Han people was once again established. During the Qing Dynasty, many pieces of music were adapted to the Qing Dynasty style, and the dances of the literati and martial artists were also established. However, political instability continued after the Opium Wars (1840-1842), and with the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, court gagaku declined, and as the wave of the New Culture Movement, which rejected Confucianism, spread, gagaku at Confucian temples in various places was also abolished one after another. Today, only the music for Confucian temple ceremonies that was moved to Taiwan at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty remains.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

Korean Gagaku

It is also called "orthodox music" to distinguish it from other folk music. In the narrow sense, it refers to the music for the rites of the Confucius Temple of King Munxuan (abbreviated as Munmyo), which was introduced from China, and in the broad sense, it refers to all the court music handed down in the Yi Dynasty, including folk music, banquet music, and military music. Folk music is further divided into rites of the Jongmyo Shrine and legal music used at banquets in the palace. The rites of the Jongmyo Shrine are performed in two seasons, spring and autumn, according to the ancient Chinese system, while the rites of the Jongmyo Shrine are performed for various rites such as those of the Jongmyo Shrine, Xungakhak, Shashoku, and Yongnyeongjeon. In both rites, two types of music with different instrument arrangements, Xuanjiaakhak ... For each piece of music, 14 to 15 different instruments are used, including the hensho (big bell), henkei (big bell), hichiriki (big string), kun (big string), chi (big string), haku (big string), shu (big string), and gyo (big string), and the performers are positioned in their designated positions along with the singers. The hyemu is a group dance that originated in China, and there are two types: the Six Hyemu Dance, which is performed by 36 people in six rows and six columns, and the Eight Hyemu Dance, which is performed by 8 rows and eight columns. The beoraku, which was the banquet music of the royal court, uses more than 20 different instruments, including the hensho (big bell), deoksho (big string), henkei (big string), deokkei (big string), sho (big string), biwa (big string), and dongxiao (big string), and there are 42 pieces, including those that were introduced from the Song dynasty and those that were composed during the reigns of Taejong, Sejong, and Sunjo of the Yi dynasty. Songs such as "Taipei Spring Song," which was introduced during the Goryeo Dynasty, and "Pyosei Manbangok" from the time of King Sejo of the Yi Dynasty, are commonly known as "Bonryeong" and "Ryōzan Kaisō," respectively, and are often performed.

Korea actively absorbed Chinese music from the Three Kingdoms period onwards. Goguryeo, which was in geographical contact with the Han and northern tribes, was particularly directly influenced by them, and the music of Silla became the most ethnically-tinged. Music from Baekje, Silla and Goguryeo was presented to the Sui and Tang dynasties, and was introduced to Japan collectively known as Samhan music. It was during the Goryeo dynasty that Chinese gagaku was first introduced. In 1106, during the reign of King Yejong Munhyo (reigned 1105-1122), Daesungak, a type of gagaku from the Song dynasty, was introduced, and the Taerakseo (also known as Jeonggakseo) was established as an office in charge of music. This is called Gagaku in the narrow sense, Tang music was a combination of Song folk music and court banquet music from the time of the unification of Silla, and ancient Korean music was called Hyangak, and the balance between these three continued until the Joseon dynasty. King Chungnyeol (reigned 1274-1308) actively imported ritual implements and musical instruments from China, and King Gongmin (reigned 1351-1374) revived Gagaku, which had almost fallen into decline due to the Mongol invasion, in 1370 by requesting musical instruments and musicians from Emperor Taejo of the Ming dynasty. The 470 years of the Goryeo dynasty can be considered a time of stability in the country as it transformed the Gagaku it had absorbed into something uniquely Korean.

During the Yi dynasty, Taejong (reigned 1400-1418) made an effort to import and organize music from the Ming dynasty, perfecting the systems for gagaku, popular music, banquet music, and military music. During the reign of the fourth king, Sejong (reigned 1418-1450), a series of reforms were carried out under the leadership of Park Jun (1377-1458), and Yi dynasty gagaku was established. Park Jun studied ancient music handed down from Silla, banquet music from the Song dynasty, and gagaku from the Tang dynasty, and brought them together as Korean music. He established the Jongakwon as an institution to oversee gagaku and institutionalized it. During this period, a series of improvements were made, including attempts to improve musical instruments, the creation of new pieces such as "Jeongdaeyeop" and "Ryūbi Otenga," and the creation of the "Seikangfu," the oldest measured musical score in the Orient. In 1493, King Seongjong Gangjeong (reigned 1469-1494) compiled the nine-volume, three-book "Gakhakgiban," said to be the greatest book on music in Korea. From the 16th to 17th centuries, the national power of the Yi dynasty declined due to the Japanese invasions (the Bunroku-Keicho Wars) and the Jurchen invasions (the Byeongjaho Rebellion). During this time, Gojong (reigned 1863-1907) renamed Jongakwon to Jongakka, and Sunjong (reigned 1907-1909) attempted a large-scale revival of court music in accordance with the ancient system, but with little success. After Korea was annexed in 1910, Japanese culture was forced upon Korea as a result of Japanese political strategies, and Yi dynasty gagaku was on the verge of extinction.

After the Second World War, when Korea gained independence from Japan, the North-South problem arose and Korea was divided into North and South. North Korea adopted a critical attitude toward traditional music in order to build a new nation, but South Korea (Republic of Korea) decided to refer to all traditional music, especially gagaku, as "gugak," and in 1951, the National Gugak Center of Korea was established as a base for protecting and nurturing gagaku, based on the gagaku club that belonged to the Yi royal family. Since the 1950s, gagaku research has been active at universities, and gagaku is not only performed at traditional events such as the festivals of the Munmyō and Jongmō shrines, but is also taught at various research institutions along with other folk music.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

Japanese Gagaku

Japanese gagaku means traditional music cultivated since ancient times in the imperial court, and refers to various types of traditional music currently performed by the Imperial Household Agency's music department. In the narrow sense, it refers to continental music that was introduced from China and Korea. Shrines and temples around the country, such as Ise Jingu and Shitennoji Temple in Osaka, also have their own unique traditions, and it can also be seen in various forms linked to folk performing arts.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

The field of gagaku and its instrument arrangement

Shinto-related

Kagura, Azuma Asobi, Oonaobi no Uta, Yamato Uta, Oouta, Kume Uta, and Ruika. These have been used since ancient times in Shinto rituals to pray for the summoning and pacifying of the gods. They are often performed in private at certain ceremonies in the Imperial Court, such as the Kume Uta at the Emperor's enthronement ceremony and the Azuma Asobi at the Imperial Memorial Service on the Vernal Equinox. Kagura is also called Mikagura to distinguish it from Sato Kagura. Each of these songs, called Kagura Uta and Azuma Asobi, sings specific lyrics, and all, except for the Ruika used at funerals, are accompanied by a dance called Yamato Mai or Kume Mai. The musical instrument lineup is generally one person each on the Kagura flute or Ryuteki, Hichiriki, Wagon, and Shakubyoshi, and is characterized by the use of the traditional Japanese instruments, the Kagura flute, Wagon, and Shakubyoshi. The Hichiriki and Kagura flute (or Ryuteki) are played along with the melody of the song.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

Continental

Tang music (bugaku and kanggen) and Komagaku (only bugaku). Various continental musics that were introduced to Japan from the 5th century were consolidated in the mid-9th century into Tang music, which was mainly composed of Chinese music such as Tang music and Linyugaku, and Komagaku, which was mainly composed of Korean music such as Samhan music and Bokhae music, and these two genres have been followed to this day. Currently, there are about 80 pieces of Tang music and about 20 pieces of Komagaku. Both Tang music and Komagaku are mainly composed of "bugaku" which is accompanied by dancing, but Tang music includes a performance form of "kanggen," which is a pure instrumental ensemble.

In Bugaku, Togaku and Komagaku are called the Left Music and the Right Music, respectively, and there are detailed rules to ensure that the masks, costumes, the way the dancers enter and exit the stage, the musical instrument arrangements, and everything else are contrasted. The instrumentalists (Kankata) who sit at the back of the stage were originally arranged on the left and right, and as seen from the front of the audience, the Left Dance appears from the left accompanied by the Left Music, and the Right Dance appears from the right accompanied by the Right Music. The alternating performance of the Left and Right Dances is called the "paired dance system." There are set combinations that are paired in content, such as "Ryo-o" and "Nasori," and "Karyobin" and "Kocho," and the two pieces are performed consecutively. In an actual performance, the "Enbu" dance is first performed by dancers on both sides to purify the stage, followed by several "Banmai" dances, and then "Chogeishi" is played as a signal for the dancers to disperse. Each piece is usually accompanied by a prelude and postlude for the dancers to enter and exit the stage. In contrast, the original piece is called "Tokyoku." For example, in the case of the Tang music piece "Ryo-o," the musicians play "Koranjo," then the dancers enter with "Ranjo," perform a dance that begins with an unaccompanied "Saezuri," then "Netori" and "Tokyoku" are performed, and the dancers exit with "Ama Ransho." The musical instrument composition in Togaku is called sankan sanko, and consists of a hichiriki, a ryuteki (also called an oteki), a sho, a taiko drum, a shoko, and a kakko, whereas Komagaku uses a hichiriki, a komabue, a taiko drum, and a sannotsuzumi drum. Of these, the hichiriki and the flute (ryuteki or komabue) play the central melody of the ensemble.

Bugaku can also be classified into the following categories based on the characteristics of the dance movements: (1) Hiramai: Graceful dancing in a line. Examples include "Manzairaku" and "Ninnaraku." (2) Hashirimai: Active jumping around the stage. Examples include "Ryo-o" and "Nasori." (3) Bunnomai: Warrior dance. Examples include "Taiheiraku." (4) Bunnomai: No weapons are used. Examples include "Shunnouden." However, since most Hiramai are Bunmai, the two are usually not distinguished. In addition, there is "Waramai/Dobu," which is originally danced by children (such as "Karyo-bin"). Even dances originally for adults, such as "Ryo-o," are sometimes performed as child dances with the face covered.

Kangen is a pure instrumental ensemble without dancing, and in a broad sense includes Saibara and Roei, which are performed at the same time. It was invented during the entertainment of aristocrats in the mid-Heian period, and originally, it was said that pieces in the Ryo and Ritsu styles were played alternately, with Saibara and Roei being sung in between. In Kangen, it is common to play a short piece of music called "Ontori" or "Choushi" that indicates the tone of the piece before playing the "Tokyoku", and this is done by the lead player of each instrument, called "Ondo". In Bugaku, the rhythm is clearly expressed, while in Kangen, the timing is carefully measured to bring out the characteristics of each instrument and make full use of the technique. The former is called "Bugaku-buki" and the latter "Kangen-buki". Kangen also has a special playing style called "Nokorigaku/Zangaku". This is a piece in which the number of instruments is gradually reduced over the course of several repetitions of a piece of music, and at the end, the hichiriki plays fragments of the original melody, and the koto plays a solo, improvising a technique called "rinzetsu." This is often performed in "Etenraku," and the usual "Zanraku Sanhen" and "Zanraku Gohen" are used. The instrument lineup is the Bugaku lineup with the addition of two strings, a biwa and a koto. The official form is called "sankandate," and consists of three players each of the hichiriki, ryuteki, and sho, two players each of the biwa and koto, and one each of the taiko, gong, and kakko. Depending on the number of wind instruments, there are also "nikandate" and "ichikandate."

[Yoko Hashimoto]

Songs from the Heian Period

Saibaraku and Roei. Saibaraku is said to have its origin in a song that "urges" horses loaded with tributes from various countries, and local Magouta (horse-carrier's songs) and folk songs are sung to instrumental accompaniment. Roei is the chanting of Chinese poetry and prose, and neither form of dance is performed. Currently, there are six Saibaraku pieces, such as "Koromogae" and "Murasuda," and 14 Roei pieces, such as "Togan" and "Harusugi." The instruments used in Saibaraku are the three-pipe, two-stringed instrument and shakubyoshi (a Japanese horn) of Togaku, and one three-pipe instrument and one Roei, which is more vocal-oriented.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

Tone and beat

The theory of gagaku, which was adapted from Chinese music theory and adapted to Japan, especially the theory of tone and rhythm, became the standard for later Japanese music. The names of the notes in the Tang Dynasty are based on the ancient Tang Dynasty music, with the fundamental tone set to d, and are as follows: Ichikotsu, Tangin, Hyojo, Shosetsu, Shimomu, Sojo, Fusho, Oushiki, Rankei, Banshiki, Shinsen, and Kamimu. The scale names are five tones: Kyu, Shang, Kaku, Chi, and Yu, plus the seven tones of Variations and Variations. There are two scales in gagaku, ritsu and ro, and according to the note names of each palace tone (tonic tone), ritsu has hyojo, oshikicho, and banshikicho, while ro has ichikotsucho, sojo, and taishikicho. These are called the "six modes of gagaku." Koryo music has komaichiyetsucho, komaheicho, and komasousho, but because the koma-teki is slightly shorter than the ryuteki, they are two major degrees higher than the same-named modes in Tang music. Of these, there are only four pieces in komaheicho and komasousho, and most are komaichiyetsucho. In reality, the notes used by the hichiriki and ryuteki do not follow the theory, and especially in melodies that include gemu (eihe) and jomu (eiha), the hichiriki uses the 'enbai' of the glissando technique, and the ryuteki frequently uses unstable notes between gemu (eihe) and shozetsu (he), which causes the notes to partially rub against the fixed pitches of the sho, biwa, and koto. The melody is made up of a combination of certain melody patterns that include these ornamental sounds, and the melody patterns are used in common for each key. Gagaku has a type of transposition piece called 'watashimono', and there are more than a dozen pieces, such as 'Etenraku' in the Hei-cho and Ouzhong-cho for 'Etenraku' in the Bansho-cho, and 'Tori no Kyu' in the Ichi-koshi-cho. 'Watashimono' is thought to have been born in Japan from the concept of 'Time's Key', which corresponds the four seasons to the 'Six Keys of Gagaku.'

The beat is divided into aperiodic beats called "jobyōshi" and metrical beats. Jobyōshi are found in other pieces such as "Otodori," "Choushi," "Shingakuranjō," and "Koranjō," while metrical beats are found in this piece. Meterial beats include hayayohyōshi, hayayahyōshi, nobe shibyōshi, nobe hachibyōshi, hayatada shibyōshi, hayatada hachibyōshi, yatara shibyōshi, and yatara hachibyōshi. Nobe and haya refer to the number of beats in the basic unit called "kobyōshi," and kobyōshi ... Among them, the kakko plays a leading role in urging the tempo of the entire ensemble from slow to fast throughout the piece. There are four types of rhythm in Koryo music: Koryo 4-beat, Age 4-beat, and Kara 4-beat, but most are in Koryo 4-beat.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

Teaching Method

Song, dance, and musical instruments are taught orally under a specialized teacher. For example, to learn the hichiriki, one learns the melody of each piece by singing it orally under a hichiriki teacher, and then begins playing the instrument. These songs for training are called "oral songs" or "songs." Musical scores are divided into songs, dance, and instruments, and instrument scores are further compiled for each instrument. These are intended as memoranda to preserve oral songs and various oral traditions, and are not intended for the general public to read and play. There is no restriction on the instruments to be taught, and in principle, those who have mastered the hichiriki and ryuteki learn the biwa and koto, and those who are familiar with both wind and string instruments learn percussion instruments. Of these, the most skilled kakko player is in charge of overall instruction. Before the Meiji period, music was taught only to the children of certain families at music studios in Kyoto, Nara, and Tennoji called "Sanpo Gakuso," and each family was assigned a different role, such as the Hayashi family playing the sho and the Togi family playing the hichiriki, and the music was passed down from father to son. The musical scores currently in circulation are based on the "Meiji Senbakufu," a compilation of the traditions of the Sanpo Gakuso during the Meiji period.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

history

The history of gagaku began with the introduction of music from various Asian regions between the 5th and 8th centuries. The Nihon Shoki records that when Emperor Ingyō passed away (460?), many musicians from Silla attended, and that in 612 (the 20th year of the reign of Empress Suiko), Mimashi of Baekje taught gigaku in Sakurai, Yamato. The music of Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo was called the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and it is said that it was performed at the imperial court in 683 (the 12th year of the reign of Emperor Tenmu). In 736 (the 8th year of Tenpyo), Rinyūgaku was introduced by Butsetsu, and although the dates are unclear, Toragaku and Bohaigaku were also introduced around the same time. From 630 (the second year of Emperor Jomei's reign), Chinese music was introduced to Japan by Japanese envoys to the Tang Dynasty, and music from these countries was actively adopted as a form of Buddhist splendor. In 701 (the first year of the Taiho era), the Taiho Code established the Gagaku Bureau under the Ministry of Justice, and the Three Kingdoms' music and Chinese music were taught as court music and dance, along with Japanese music. Various foreign music was systematically spread, and over the course of about half a century from the time of Emperor Ninmyo (reigned 833-850), it was gradually modified to be more Japanese. This is known as the "Heian Music Reforms."

The main contents of the musical reforms in the Heian period were: (1) the reorganization and consolidation of musical pieces and dance into two categories, Tang music and Goryeo music, with the former being the music of the left and the latter the music of the right, to clearly distinguish them, (2) the use of large sho instruments such as the u, daihichiriki, and shakuhachi (ancient shakuhachi) was discontinued, and instruments suited to the Japanese sense of pitch were combined to create an instrumental lineup for each category that is roughly the same as today, and (3) the influence of Chinese music theory led to the determination of six modes for Tang music and three modes for Goryeo music. New pieces were also composed during this period, with works such as "Jowa music" and "Chōgeishi" for Tang music and "Ninna music" and "Engigaku" for Goryeo music being composed. Furthermore, in 821 (Kōnin 12), the use of gagaku in imperial court ceremonies was officially established with the "Dairishiki" ceremony, and gagaku was also widely performed at orchestral entertainment, producing such masters as Oto Kiyokami and Owari Hamanushi.

In the 10th and 11th centuries, a field of vocal music called Saibaraku and Roei was born, in which Japanese and Chinese poetry was accompanied by wind and string instruments. There are many descriptions of Saibaraku in The Tale of Genji, and it is thought to have been popular around the time of Emperor Ichijo (reigned 986-1011). At court, wind and percussion instruments and dancing were performed by professional musicians, while string instruments and singing were performed by aristocrats such as the Saionji and Ayanokoji families. Among the aristocrats, virtuoso performers such as Minamoto Hiromasa (918-980) and Fujiwara Moronaga emerged, and later gave rise to two schools, the Gen family and the Fujiwara family.

Gagaku was relatively well preserved even under the samurai government, but the Onin War (1467-1477) destroyed urban culture, and gagaku only remained in the Tanabata festival. In the late 16th century, musicians from Kyoto, Nara, and Tennoji, who were exclusively affiliated with major shrines and temples, were called the "Sanpo Gakuso" and became a foothold for the revival of gagaku. In other words, during the Tensho and Bunroku eras (1573-1596) of Emperors Ogimachi and Goyozei, musicians from Shitennoji (Tennoji side) and Kofukuji (Nara side or Nantō side) were added to the stagnant court musicians (Kyoto side or Ouchi Gakuso) and were made to contribute to the promotion of gagaku. During the Edo period, the third shogun, Tokugawa Iemitsu, gathered some of the musicians from the three sides at Momijiyama in Edo Castle and had them perform at religious ceremonies. These musicians were called "Momijiyama Gakunin."

In the Meiji era, when a new government centered on the Imperial Court was established with the Great Proclamation of the Restoration of Imperial Rule, gagaku was "returned to the Imperial Household." The custom of exclusive ownership of secret music and techniques in gagaku was abolished, and when the Dajokan Gagaku Bureau was established in 1870 (Meiji 3), musicians from the Mikata Gakusho and Momijiyama were summoned there to discuss liberalization. Then, in 1876 and 1888, scores for songs, dances, and instruments in all fields, including Shinto, continental, and vocal music, were collected and the 72-volume "Meiji Senbakufu" was compiled. The Gagaku Bureau was later renamed the Gagaku Division and Gagaku Department, and is now the Music Department under the Imperial Household Agency's Shikibusho.

Since the Meiji period, gagaku has been popularized along with the introduction of Western music, and while gagaku by the Imperial Household Agency is now performed as the official music for court ceremonies, shrines and temples such as Shitennoji and Kofukuji still maintain their own unique traditions, and in recent years, a new trend has been the increase in private enthusiasts, with the number of active gagaku groups exceeding 100 nationwide. Gagaku has also influenced Western composers such as Debussy, and new fields have been developed that combine gagaku instruments with modern compositional techniques, such as Takemitsu Toru's "Autumn Garden Song One Piece" and Ishii Maki's "Encounter II," and expectations are high for the potential of gagaku.

[Yoko Hashimoto]

Gagaku was registered as an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) in 2009.

[Editorial Department]

"Gagaku" by Masumoto Kikuko (1968, Gakuno Tomosha)" ▽ "Atari no Giwataro and William Mahm, "Japanese Traditions 7 Gagaku" (1968, Tankosha)" ▽ "Gagaku Appreciation by Oshida Yoshihisa (1969, Bunkendo Shichiseisha)" ▽ "Christmas Japanese Classical Entertainment 2 Gagaku" (1970, Heibonsha)" ▽ "Terauchi Naoko, "Listen to Gagaku: An Invitation to the Garden of Sounds" (Iwanami Shinsho)"

Gagaku classification and instrument composition
©Shogakukan ">

Gagaku classification and instrument composition

Current dance
©Shogakukan ">

Current dance

Current Tube Music (left)
©Shogakukan ">

Current Tube Music (left)

Special
Mid-18th century Jade and gold plated, size 47.7 x 83.8 cm, collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, China">

Special

Sho
Second half of the 19th century, wood, metal, ivory, total length 50.2cm, collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, China">

Sho

Fishing drum
19th century wood and metal height 88.9cm (bean diameter 17.8cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art ">

Fishing drum

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

古代中国を起源とし日本、朝鮮、ベトナムなどに広く伝わった音楽。「雅正の楽」の意で、国家の荘厳(しょうごん)をなすために用いられ、民衆の間で親しまれる「俗楽」と区別される。宮廷・寺社の儀礼・祭礼における正式な音楽で、大規模な楽器編成をもち、歌舞を伴うことが多い。中国の文化的・思想的影響のもとに各国で独自の分野がつくられ、それぞれの民族固有の楽器も使用される。現在中国では衰滅し、その他の国で伝承されている。

［橋本曜子］

中国と朝鮮の雅楽

中国の雅楽

狭義には儒教思想に基づく天地宗廟(そうびょう)のための祭祀(さいし)の楽を意味し、広義にはこれに宮廷の娯楽用の楽である宴饗楽(えんきょうがく)を含む。

　雅楽の名称は春秋時代に孔子（前552―前479）が、鄭(てい)・衛国の音楽を鄭声(ていせい)、舜(しゅん)帝や周の文王・武王の作といわれる音楽を雅声と称し、とくに後者を尊んだことに始まる。伝説には周の文王・武王のとき（前12世紀）すでに文武の舞が定められ、六律六呂(りくりつりくりょ)、五声八音六舞をもって大合奏をしたという。戦国時代になると、諸子百家争鳴のなかで儒家が礼を尊び仁を最高の徳とする礼楽思想を唱え、これを思想的に表現する正統な音楽として雅楽を位置づけた。当時は祖先を祀(まつ)る「廟祭(びょうさい)楽」、天地自然の神を祀る「郊祀(こうし)楽」、朝廷の娯楽用の「宴饗楽」の3種があり、楽器は琴(きん)・鐘(しょう)・瑟(しつ)・磬(けい)・管(かん)・籥(やく)・笙(しょう)・篪(ち)・缶(ふ)・柷・敔(ぎょ)・鼓(こ)など約20種を用いたという。これらの楽器は儒教の陰陽五行説と結んで、宇宙を構成する八つの要素、金・石・絹・竹・匏(ふくべ)・土・革・木という分類に従って、各材質により八つに分けられた。これを「八音」という。秦(しん)の始皇帝は文教統一政策をとり雅楽はいったん停滞したが、続く漢代では前漢の高祖（在位前206～前195）が周制の宗廟祭祀の楽を復興するとともに太楽(たいがく)署という雅楽を担当する機関を設け、雅楽は制度的にも確立された。以後代々の皇帝が楽曲の補充と整備に努め、後漢(ごかん)の章帝（在位75～88）は郊祀楽として、黄帝・堯(ぎょう)帝・舜帝ら6帝王の徳をたたえる「六代の楽」を制定した。このころには周伝来の各種の楽器に新しく西方伝来の琵琶(びわ)、箜篌(くご)などを加え、全部で約30種の楽器が使われ、周制では独立していた歌舞が器楽とともに演じられるようになった。三国時代から晋(しん)・南北朝・隋(ずい)時代は政情が不安定で、雅楽の発展はみられない。南朝宋(そう)では武帝（在位420～422）、文帝（在位424～453）、孝武帝（在位453～464）らが雅楽の復興を企て、隋では牛弘が589年に宋・斉(せい)両朝の雅楽を採用したが効果は少なく、むしろ国家変動に乗じて伝来した西域(せいいき)楽・朝鮮楽と中国の俗楽が融合した宴饗楽（後の燕(えん)楽）に進展がみられ、宮廷で重んじられた。

　雅楽が国際的な音楽として内容を充実させたのは唐時代である。唐代の雅楽には、国家行事に用いられる宴饗楽（狭義の雅楽）、宮廷の娯楽として北方東胡(こ)民族の音楽を取り入れた胡楽、漢以来中国固有の俗楽があった。日本にはこの唐代の俗楽が雅楽として伝わったといわれる。初代高祖（在位618～626）は626年『予和』『順和』『永和』など12の曲を集めた「十二和の楽」を制定し（「大唐雅楽」という）、玄宗（在位713～755）は718年これにさらに『械和』『豊和』『宣和』の三和を加えて大成した。この雅楽を唐代最高峰のものとしてとくに「開元雅楽」という。元代の書『文献通考』によれば、この雅楽は「堂上登歌(とうか)」と「堂下楽懸(がくけん)」が交替して行われるもので、前者は歌を主体に器楽合奏のついたもの、後者は総勢300人余りも要する舞と器楽の融合したものであったという。このうち堂下楽懸が朝鮮に下賜され、現在朝鮮の雅楽はこの古制を伝えていると考えられる。また隋の楽官、鄭訳(ていやく)（540―591）が考案した七声十二律八四調の理論が、唐代では胡楽・俗楽の調名を十数個取り入れた形で新たに完成された。これは、一つの調は一定の七音音階からなる「律」というもので規定されるとするもので、すべて「律」の階名は宮(きゅう)・商(しょう)・角(かく)・変徴(ち)・徴・羽(う)・変宮を基本とする。一つの律に対して各音を主音としてつくられた宮調・商調・角調などの調がつねに7通り成り立ち、十二律に対してその7倍の八四調が成り立つという理論である。その一部が日本に伝わり雅楽の「六調子」となった。

　唐代の「十二和」は、五代十国時代には「十二順」、宋代には「十二安」と読み替えられ、『高安』『理安』『静安』など曲名と内容が一新された。また胡楽・俗楽は一括して燕楽と称され、狭義では明らかに雅楽と区別されるようになった。宗廟の祭祀にはしばしばこれら燕楽が歌舞とともに奏された。北宋の神宗（在位1067～1085）は新しい雅楽として「大晟楽(たいせいがく)」を制定、のちにはこれを教習する大晟楽府も設立された。北・南宋は雅楽研究の進んだ時代でもあり、勅選の楽書が編まれたほか、南宋の蔡元定(さいげんてい)は『燕楽書』や『律呂新書』を著した。とくに音律に関する議論が盛んで、実際に律を改定したり、阮琴(げんきん)などそれにあわせた新楽器が考案されたりした。北方民族の建国した元代にはフビライ・ハンが雅楽を試みるが定着せず、明(みん)代初年になって「太楽」「郊祀の楽」が制定（1368）され、ふたたび漢民族の伝統につながる雅楽が整えられた。清(しん)代には多くの楽曲を清朝風に改作し、文武の舞も整えられた。しかしアヘン戦争（1840～1842）後政情不安定が続き、1912年、清朝滅亡と同時に宮廷雅楽は衰滅、さらに儒教排斥の新文化運動の波が広がると、各地の孔子廟雅楽も次々と廃絶された。現在では台湾に清代初めに移された孔子廟祭祀の楽が残るのみである。

［橋本曜子］

朝鮮の雅楽

他の民俗音楽と区別して「正楽(せいがく)」ともいう。狭義には文宣王(ぶんせんおう)廟（略して文廟）という中国から伝来した孔子廟の祭祀の楽を、広義にはそれに俗楽・宴楽・軍楽を加えた李(り)王家に伝わる宮廷音楽全体をさす。俗楽はさらに宗廟の祭楽と宮中の宴礼に用いる法楽からなる。文廟の祭楽は中国の古制に従い春秋の二季に行われ、宗廟の祭楽は宗廟をはじめ先農・社稷(しゃしょく)・永寧殿など各種の祭祀に行われる。いずれの祭楽においても楽器編成の異なる2種の楽、軒架(けんか)楽と登歌(とうか)楽が交互に繰り返され、文武の佾舞(いつぶ／いつまい)が舞われる。楽器はそれぞれの楽について編鐘(へんしょう)・編磬(へんけい)・觱篥(ひちりき)・壎(くん)・篪(ち)・拍(はく)・柷(しゅく)・敔(ぎょ)など14～15種類が用いられ、演奏者は歌を担当する人々とともに所定の位置に配置される。佾舞は中国伝来の群舞で、6列6行36人で舞う「六佾の舞」と、8列8行で舞う「八佾の舞」がある。宮中の宴礼楽である法楽は、編鐘・特鐘・編磬・特磬・笙(しょう)・琵琶(びわ)・洞簫(どうしょう)など20種以上の楽器が用いられ、宋から伝来したものや、李朝の太宗・世宗・純祖のときつくられたものなど42曲がある。高麗(こうらい)朝伝来の『太平春之曲』、李朝世祖のときの『表正万方曲』などは、それぞれ「本令」「霊山会相」などという俗称でよばれ、しばしば演奏されている。

　朝鮮では三国時代より中国音楽を盛んに摂取した。とくに漢や北方民族と地理的に接触している高句麗(こうくり)は直接それらの影響を受け、新羅(しらぎ)の音楽はもっとも民族色の濃いものとなった。百済(くだら)・新羅・高句麗の音楽は隋・唐に献上されたほか、三韓楽と総称されて日本に伝わった。中国の雅楽が初めて伝わったのは高麗(こうらい)朝である。1106年睿(えい)宗文孝王（在位1105～1122）のとき、宋の雅楽の一種である「大晟楽」が伝わり、音楽をつかさどる官署として太楽署（典楽署とも）が設けられた。これを狭義の雅楽、宋の俗楽と新羅統一時代の宮中宴楽をあわせたものを唐楽、古来の朝鮮音楽を郷楽(ヒァンアク)として、この三者の鼎立(ていりつ)が李朝まで続いた。忠烈王（在位1274～1308）は中国から祭器・楽器を積極的に摂取し、恭愍(きょうびん)王（在位1351～1374）は、蒙古(もうこ)襲来により衰滅しかけた雅楽を明の太祖に楽器や楽人を請うて1370年に再興するなど、歴代の王は宮廷音楽の整備に力を尽くした。高麗朝470年間は、中国が唐・宋・元・明と変遷する一方で国情は安定し、吸収した雅楽を朝鮮独自のものにつくりかえた時代と考えてよい。

　李朝では、太宗（在位1400～1418）が明の音楽の移入と整理に努め、雅楽・俗楽・宴楽・軍楽の制が完備された。4代世宗（在位1418～1450）の時代になると、朴堧(ぼくせん)（1377―1458）を中心として一連の改革がなされ、李朝雅楽が確立した。朴堧は新羅より伝承される古楽や宋伝来の宴饗楽、唐代の雅楽を研究し、かつ朝鮮のものとして集大成し、雅楽をつかさどる機関として掌楽院を設けて制度化した。この時期には楽器の改良が企てられたり、『定大業』『竜飛御天歌』などの新作がつくられたり、また「井間譜(せいかんふ)」という東洋最古の定量楽譜が考案されるなど、一連の改良がなされた。成宗康靖王（在位1469～1494）の1493年には、朝鮮最高の楽書といわれる『楽学軌範』全9巻3冊が編集された。16～17世紀にかけては日本の侵略（文禄(ぶんろく)・慶長(けいちょう)の役）、女真族の侵入（丙子胡(こ)乱）が続き李王家の国力は衰えた。そのなかで、高宗（在位1863～1907）は掌楽院を掌楽課と改め、純宗（在位1907～1909）は古制にのっとり大規模な宮廷音楽の復興を企てたが成果は乏しかった。1910年の韓国併合以後は、日本の政略によって日本文化が強制され、李王家雅楽は滅亡に瀕(ひん)した。

　第二次世界大戦後、日本から独立すると、南北問題が生じ、朝鮮は南北に二分された。北朝鮮では新しい国家建設のため伝統音楽に対して批判的な態度がとられたが、韓国（大韓民国）では雅楽を中心に伝統音楽を総じて「国楽」と称することとし、その保護育成のために1951年、李王家に属していた雅楽部を母体として韓国国立国楽院が発足した。1950年代からは大学でも国楽研究が盛んとなり、雅楽は文廟・宗廟の祭礼など本来の伝統的な行事で演奏されるほか、さまざまな研究機関で他の民俗音楽とともに教習されている。

［橋本曜子］

日本の雅楽

　日本の雅楽は、古来より宮廷で育成された正統な音楽という意味で、現在宮内庁楽部で演奏される伝統音楽の諸種目をさし、狭義にはそのうち中国・朝鮮より伝来した大陸系のものをさす。伊勢(いせ)神宮や大阪の四天王寺など各地の社寺にも固有の伝承があり、また民間芸能と結び付き多様な形でも見受けられる。

［橋本曜子］

雅楽の分野とその楽器編成

神道系のもの

神楽(かぐら)・東遊(あずまあそび)・大直日歌(おおなおびのうた)・倭歌(やまとうた)・大歌(おおうた)・久米歌(くめうた)・誄歌(るいか)。古来より神の招魂・鎮魂を祈願して行われる神道(しんとう)の儀礼に用いられるもの。天皇即位式典の久米歌、春分の日の皇霊祭に行われる東遊など、宮中の特定の儀礼において非公開で奏されることが多い。神楽は里神楽と区別して御神楽(みかぐら)ともいう。神楽歌・東遊歌などと称していずれも特定の歌詞を歌い、葬儀に用いる誄歌を除いてはすべて倭舞(やまとまい)・久米舞(くめまい)などと称する舞を伴う。楽器編成は原則的に神楽笛あるいは竜笛(りゅうてき)・篳篥(ひちりき)・和琴(わごん)・笏拍子(しゃくびょうし)各1人で、日本在来の神楽笛・和琴・笏拍子を用いることに特色がある。篳篥・神楽笛（または竜笛）は歌の旋律に沿って演奏する。

［橋本曜子］

大陸系のもの

唐楽（舞楽と管絃(かんげん)）・高麗楽(こまがく)（舞楽のみ）。5世紀より日本に伝来したさまざまな大陸の音楽は、9世紀なかばに唐楽・林邑楽(りんゆうがく)など中国系の音楽を主体とする唐楽と、三韓楽・渤海楽(ぼっかいがく)など朝鮮系の音楽を主体とする高麗楽に整理統合され、その2分野が今日まで踏襲される。現在唐楽は約80曲、高麗楽は約20曲ある。唐楽・高麗楽とも舞を伴う「舞楽」を主体とするが、唐楽には純粋な器楽合奏である「管絃」の演奏形態がある。

　舞楽においては唐楽・高麗楽はそれぞれ左方の楽・右方の楽と称され、面、舞装束、舞人の登退場の方法、楽器編成などすべてにわたって対照をなすよう細かな取決めがある。舞台後方に座す楽器奏者（管方(かんかた)）も本来左右に分かれて配置されたのであり、客席の正面から見て左舞(さまい)は左方の楽によって左から、右舞は右方の楽によって右から登場するのが決まりである。そして左舞・右舞を交互に演ずるのを「番舞(つがいまい)の制」という。『陵王(りょうおう)』と『納曽利(なそり)』、『迦陵頻(かりょうびん)』と『胡蝶(こちょう)』など、内容上対(つい)をなすような組合せが決まっており、2曲続けて上演される。実際の番組では、舞台を浄(きよ)めるために「振鉾(えんぶ)」の舞がまず左右の舞人で舞われたのち、「番舞」が数番重ねられ、散会の合図に『長慶子(ちょうげいし)』が演奏される。各楽曲は、舞人が登退場するための前奏・後奏曲を伴って演奏されるのが普通である。これに対し本来の曲を「当曲(とうきょく)」という。たとえば唐楽『陵王』の場合は、管方により「小乱声(こらんじょう)」が奏されたのち、「乱序(らんじょ)」によって舞人が登場し、「囀(さえずり)」という無伴奏で始まる舞が舞われて、「音取(ねとり)」「当曲」が演奏され、「安摩(あま)乱声」で退場する。楽器編成は、唐楽では三管三鼓と称し、篳篥・竜笛（横笛(おうてき)とも）・笙(しょう)、および太鼓・鉦鼓(しょうこ)・鞨鼓(かっこ)を用いるのに対し、高麗楽では篳篥・高麗笛(こまぶえ)、および太鼓・三ノ鼓(さんのつづみ)を用いる。このうち合奏の中心となる旋律を受け持つのは篳篥と笛（竜笛または高麗笛）である。

　また舞楽は、舞の動きの特徴から次のように分類される。(1)平舞(ひらまい)　列をつくって優雅に舞うもの。『万歳楽(まんざいらく)』『仁和楽(にんならく)』など。(2)走舞(はしりまい)　舞台上を活発に跳躍するもの。『陵王』『納曽利』など。(3)武舞(ぶのまい)　楯(たて)などの武具を用いるもの。『太平楽(たいへいらく)』など。(4)文舞(ぶんのまい)　武具を用いないもの。『春鶯囀(しゅんのうでん)』など。ただしほとんどの平舞は文舞なので、通常この両者は区別しない。このほか、本来子供によって舞われる「童舞(わらわまい／どうぶ)」（『迦陵頻』など）がある。また『陵王』など、本来は大人用の舞でも、直面(ひためん)で童舞として舞われることもある。

　管絃は舞を伴わない純粋な器楽合奏で、広義にはこれと同時に演奏される催馬楽(さいばら)や朗詠(ろうえい)も含む。平安時代中期貴族の御遊(ぎょゆう)において考え出されたもので、元来、呂(りょ)調と律調の曲を交互に演奏し、その間に催馬楽・朗詠を歌ったという。管絃でも、「当曲」を奏する前にその曲の調子を示す「音取」や「調子」という短い曲を奏するのが普通で、これには「音頭(おんど)」とよばれる各楽器の主奏者があたる。また舞楽では拍節感を明確に出して奏するのに対し、管絃では各楽器の特色を出し技巧を駆使するため丹念に間合いを計って奏する。前者を「舞楽吹き」、後者を「管絃吹き」と称する。また管絃には「残楽(のこりがく／ざんがく)」という特殊な奏法がある。これは楽曲を数回反復する間にしだいに楽器の数を減らしていくもので、最後は篳篥が元の旋律を断片的に奏し、そのなかを箏(そう)が「輪説(りんぜつ)」と称する技法を即興的に入れながら独奏して終わる。『越天楽(えてんらく)』などでしばしば行われ「残楽三返」「残楽五返」が通例。楽器編成は、舞楽の編成に琵琶・箏の二絃を加えたもの。「三管立て」と称し篳篥・竜笛・笙各3人、琵琶・箏各2人、太鼓・鉦鼓・鞨鼓各1人というのが正式の形で、そのほか管楽器の人数により「二管立て」「一管立て」がある。

［橋本曜子］

平安時代の歌曲

催馬楽・朗詠。催馬楽は諸国からの貢物を負わせた馬を「駆り催す」歌が語源ともいわれ、地方の馬子唄(まごうた)や俗謡を器楽伴奏で歌う。朗詠は漢詩文の詠唱で、両者とも舞はない。現在催馬楽は『更衣(ころもがえ)』『席田(むしろだ)』など6曲、朗詠は『東岸(とうがん)』『春過(はるすぎ)』など14曲残っている。催馬楽に用いる楽器は唐楽の三管二絃に笏拍子(しゃくびょうし)、朗詠は三管1人ずつでより声楽本位となっている。

［橋本曜子］

調子と拍子

中国の音楽理論を導入し日本化された雅楽の理論、とくに調子と拍子の理論は後の日本音楽の規範となった。十二律の音名は、盛唐の唐古律に基づき基音をdとして、壱越(いちこつ)・断金(たんぎん)・平調(ひょうじょう)・勝絶(しょうせつ)・下無(しもむ)・双調(そうじょう)・鳧鐘(ふしょう)・黄鐘(おうしき)・鸞鏡(らんけい)・盤渉(ばんしき)・神仙(しんせん)・上無(かみむ)。階名は宮(きゅう)・商(しょう)・角(かく)・徴(ち)・羽(う)の五声とそれに変徴・変宮を加えた七声である。雅楽の調子には律と呂という二つの音階があり、それぞれの宮音（主音）の音名によって、律には平調(ひょうじょう)・黄鐘調(おうしきちょう)・盤渉調(ばんしきちょう)、呂には壱越調(いちこつちょう)・双調(そうじょう)・太食調(たいしきちょう)があるとする。これらを「雅楽の六調子」という。高麗楽には高麗壱越調・高麗平調・高麗双調があるが、高麗笛が竜笛よりすこし短いため唐楽の同名の調子より長2度ずつ高い。このうち高麗平調・高麗双調はあわせて4曲しかなく、ほとんどが高麗壱越調である。実際には篳篥と竜笛の使用音は理論どおりではなく、とくに下無（嬰(えい)ヘ）と上無（嬰ハ）を含む旋律では、篳篥はグリサンド奏法の「塩梅(えんばい)」、竜笛は下無（嬰ヘ）と勝絶（ヘ）の中間の不安定な音を多用して、音高の固定した笙・琵琶・箏と音高が部分的に擦れ合うこととなる。旋律はこれらの装飾音を含んだ一定の旋律型の組合せからなり、旋律型は各調子に共通して用いられる。雅楽には「渡物(わたしもの)」という一種の移調曲があり、盤渉調『越天楽』に対して平調・黄鐘調の『越天楽』、壱越調『鳥の急』に対して双調のそれなど十数曲ある。「渡物」は春夏秋冬を「雅楽の六調子」に対応させる「時の調子」の概念から日本で生まれたと考えられる。

　拍子は無拍節な拍子「序拍子(じょびょうし)」と、拍節的な拍子に分かれる。序拍子は「音取」「調子」「新楽乱声(しんがくらんじょう)」「小乱声(こらんじょう)」など当曲以外の曲に、拍節的な拍子は当曲にみられる。拍節的な拍子には早四拍子(はやよひょうし)・早八(はやや)拍子・延(のべ)四拍子・延八拍子・早只(はやただ)四拍子・早只八拍子・夜多羅(やたら)四拍子・夜多羅八拍子がある。延・早などは「小拍子(こびょうし)」とよぶ基本単位の拍数を示し、四・八拍子はそれぞれ小拍子4個または8個ごとに太鼓が打たれることを示す。鞨鼓・鉦鼓はこの太鼓の周期を目安としてそのなかで特定のリズム型を奏する。なかでも鞨鼓は合奏全体のテンポを、楽曲を通じて緩から急へ促す先導的役割を果たす。高麗楽には高麗四拍子・揚(あげ)拍子・唐拍子があるが、ほとんどは高麗四拍子である。

［橋本曜子］

教習法

歌・舞・楽器の教習はそれぞれ専門の師について口伝(くでん)で行われる。たとえば篳篥を習うには篳篥の師について1曲ずつ楽曲の旋律を口伝えで歌い覚え、のち楽器演奏に入る。教習用のこの歌を「口唱歌(くちしょうが)」または「唱歌」という。楽譜は歌・舞・楽器別に分かれ、楽器譜はさらに各楽器ごとに編まれている。これらは口唱歌や種々の口伝を保つ備忘録としての性格が強く、広く一般の間で読譜し演奏するためのものではない。教習する楽器も任意ではなく、原則として篳篥・竜笛を習得した者が琵琶・箏を習い、管・絃両方の楽器に通じた者が打楽器を学ぶ。なかでも鞨鼓は全奏者のうちもっとも優れた者が担当し、全体の指導にあたる。明治以前には「三方楽所(さんぽうがくそ)」と称する京都・奈良・天王寺の楽所で特定の家の子弟にのみ教習され、たとえば天王寺方では林家が笙、東儀家が篳篥などというように家ごとに分担が決められ、一子相伝で伝えられた。現在流布している楽譜は、明治時代に三方楽所の伝承を集成した『明治選定譜』に基づいている。

［橋本曜子］

歴史

雅楽の歴史は5世紀から8世紀にかけてのアジア諸地域の音楽の伝来に始まる。『日本書紀』には允恭(いんぎょう)天皇崩御のとき（460？）新羅(しらぎ)の楽人が多数参列し、612年（推古天皇20）には百済(くだら)の味摩之(みまし)が大和(やまと)桜井で伎楽(ぎがく)を教授したという記述がある。新羅・百済・高句麗(こうくり)の音楽は三韓楽と称され、683年（天武天皇12）には宮廷で奏されたという。736年（天平8）には林邑楽(りんゆうがく)が仏哲によって、そのほか年代は明らかでないが度羅楽(とらがく)・渤海楽(ぼっかいがく)も同じころ渡来したという。630年（舒明天皇2）からは遣唐使の派遣によって唐楽が伝えられ、これら諸国の音楽は仏教の荘厳(しょうごん)として積極的に摂取された。701年（大宝1）には大宝律令(たいほうりつりょう)により治部省のもとに雅楽寮が置かれ、和楽とともに三韓楽・唐楽が宮廷の楽舞として教習されることとなった。多様な外来楽は制度的に広められ、仁明(にんみょう)天皇（在位833～850）のころから約半世紀にわたってしだいに日本的なものに改変されていく。これを「平安の楽制改革」と称する。

　平安の楽制改革のおもな内容は、(1)楽曲・楽舞を唐楽・高麗楽の2分野に整理統合し、前者を左方の楽、後者を右方の楽として対比を明確にしたこと、(2)大型の笙である竿(う)・大篳篥・尺八（古代尺八）などが使用されなくなり、日本人の音感にあった楽器を取り合わせて各分野ごとにほぼ今日と同じ楽器編成が整備されたこと、(3)中国の音楽理論の影響を受け、唐楽の六調子、高麗楽の三調子が決定されたこと、である。この時期には新作も進み、唐楽では『承和楽』『長慶子(ちょうげいし)』、高麗楽では『仁和(にんな)楽』『延喜(えんぎ)楽』などが作曲された。また821年（弘仁12）「内裏(だいり)式」により宮中儀礼における雅楽の制も正式に定められ、管絃の遊びでも雅楽は盛んに演奏されて、大戸清上(おおとのきよかみ)、尾張浜主(おわりのはまぬし)らの名手を生んだ。

　10、11世紀には和漢の詩歌に管絃の伴奏をつけた催馬楽・朗詠という声楽分野も誕生した。『源氏物語』には催馬楽の記述が多く、一条(いちじょう)天皇（在位986～1011）のころ盛んであったと考えられる。宮廷では管・打楽器と舞は専業の楽人に、絃楽器と歌は西園寺(さいおんじ)家、綾小路(あやのこうじ)家らの貴族に受け持たれ、貴族のなかからは源博雅(ひろまさ)（918―980）、藤原師長(もろなが)らの名手が出現し、のちに源(げん)家と藤(とう)家の2派を生じた。

　武家政権のもとにおいても雅楽は比較的よく保存されたが、応仁(おうにん)・文明(ぶんめい)の乱（1467～1477）では都市文化は破壊され、雅楽はわずかに七夕(たなばた)の行事に残るのみとなった。16世紀後期には、大社寺に専属している京都・奈良・天王寺の楽人をあわせてこれを「三方楽所(さんぽうがくそ)」と称し雅楽復興の足掛りとした。すなわち正親町(おおぎまち)・後陽成(ごようぜい)天皇の天正(てんしょう)・文禄(ぶんろく)年間（1573～1596）に、四天王寺の楽人（天王寺方）と興福寺の楽人（奈良方または南都方）は、停滞している宮廷の楽人（京都方または大内楽所）に加えられ、雅楽の振興に寄与させられたのである。江戸時代には3代将軍徳川家光(いえみつ)が三方の楽人の一部を江戸城内紅葉山(もみじやま)に集め祭祀儀礼に演奏させた。これを「紅葉山楽人(もみじやまがくにん)」という。

　王政復古の大号令によって、朝廷を中心とした新政府が成立した明治時代になると、雅楽はいったん「皇室に返上」することとなった。雅楽における秘曲・技法専有の習慣は廃止され、1870年（明治3）太政官(だじょうかん)雅楽局が開設されると、三方楽所と紅葉山の楽人はそこに召集され、自由化について合議することとなった。そして1876年と1888年の2回にわたり、神道系・大陸系・声楽曲すべての分野の歌・舞・各楽器の楽譜が集成され、72冊からなる『明治選定譜』が制定された。のち、雅楽局は雅楽課・雅楽部と改称され、現在、宮内庁式部職に属する楽部に至っている。

　明治以後、西洋音楽の導入と同時に雅楽の大衆化が進み、宮内庁雅楽が宮中儀礼に正式の楽として奏される一方、四天王寺・興福寺などの社寺では依然独自の伝統が保たれ、新しい傾向として近年は民間でも愛好者が増えて、活動する雅楽団体は全国で100を超える。また雅楽はドビュッシーをはじめとする西洋の作曲家に影響を与えてきたが、武満徹(たけみつとおる)の『秋庭歌一具』、石井真木(まき)の『遭遇Ⅱ』など雅楽器と現代の作曲技法を融合した新しい分野も開拓され、雅楽の可能性に期待が寄せられている。

［橋本曜子］

　なお雅楽は、2009年（平成21）ユネスコ（国連教育科学文化機関）の無形文化遺産に登録された。

［編集部］

『増本喜久子著『雅楽』（1968・音楽之友社）』▽『東儀和太郎、ウィリアム・マーム著『日本の伝統7　雅楽』（1968・淡交社）』▽『押田良久著『雅楽鑑賞』（1969・文憲堂七星社）』▽『芸能史研究会編『日本の古典芸能2　雅楽』（1970・平凡社）』▽『寺内直子著『雅楽を聴く――響きの庭への誘い』（岩波新書）』

雅楽の分類と楽器編成

現行舞楽

現行管絃楽曲（左方）

特磬
18世紀中ごろ　翡翠・金めっき　大きさ47.7×83.8cm　中国メトロポリタン美術館所蔵">

特磬

笙
19世紀後半　木・金属・象牙　全長50.2cm　中国メトロポリタン美術館所蔵">

笙

釣鉦鼓
19世紀　木・金属　高さ88.9cm（鉦の直径17.8cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵">

釣鉦鼓

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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