Natsume Soseki - Natsume Soseki

Japanese: 夏目漱石 - なつめそうせき

Novelist. Real name Kinnosuke. Born on January 5, 1867 (February 9, Gregorian calendar) in Edo Ushigome Babashita Yokocho (Ushigome Kikuicho, Shinjuku Ward, Tokyo).

[Yukio Miyoshi]

Early life

His father was Kohyoe Naokatsu, the headman who ruled the entire town, and his mother Chie, and he was the youngest of five sons and three daughters. As a child, he was neglected by his parents in their later years and was put into foster care shortly after birth, and was subsequently adopted by Shiobara Masanosuke. When he was nine years old, his adoptive parents divorced and he returned to the Natsume family, but his parents did not necessarily welcome him warmly. His childhood experiences of not receiving love from his own family made him an introverted person who was sensitive to the affections of others, and he also developed a cold-hearted view of humanity that saw other people even among his own family. This is one of the indirect reasons why Soseki's later literature would depict various aspects of love and egoism. He started out as a boy who loved Chinese classics and studied at Nishogakusha and other schools, but after passing through Seiritsu Gakusha and entering Daigaku Yobimon (the Faculty of Arts and Sciences of the University of Tokyo), he chose to study English literature as his life's work, and entered the Department of English Literature at the Faculty of Letters of the Imperial University (the Faculty of Letters of the University of Tokyo) in 1890 (Meiji 23). During his time at the Yobimon, he met Masaoka Shiki, who he became friends with through Chinese poetry and prose, and who taught him haiku. He graduated from the university in 1893 and enrolled in graduate school for a time, but after working as a lecturer at the Tokyo Higher Normal School and a professor at the Fifth Higher School, he was ordered by the Ministry of Education to study English in England in 1900 (Meiji 33), and his path as an English literature scholar progressed smoothly. During that time, he worked as a teacher at Matsuyama Middle School in Ehime Prefecture from 1895 to the following year, and his experiences there were incorporated into "Botchan" (1906).

[Yukio Miyoshi]

The birth of a novelist

His study abroad in England lasted three years. After returning to Japan, he became a professor at the First Higher School in 1903 (Meiji 36), and also taught English literature as a lecturer at the College of Literature. His university lectures, compiled in Literary Theory (1907) and Literary Criticism (1909), are highly regarded as the first English literature studies written by a Japanese. However, Soseki himself was troubled from an early age by the contradiction between the traditional literary spirit of the East and the pathos of English literature, and he continued to feel the difficulties and anxiety of studying foreign literature as a Japanese person. He also began to feel an unbearable aversion to teaching life. In addition, discord with his wife Kyoko, whom he married in 1896, and financial troubles with his former adoptive parents were also a part of his stress at home, and his nervous breakdown from his student days worsened, leading to frequent severe bouts of depression. He later depicted those critical days in "Douso" (1915), but his debut novel "Wagahai wa Neko de Aru" (I Am a Cat) (1905-1906) was written as a cathartic release from those gloomy feelings. It sharply satirizes the everyday lives of the masses of people who gather on the horizon of reality, including himself and others, and laughs bitterly at them. His unique style, unparalleled in modern literature, combined with his free and free-flowing narrative style attracted many readers and solidified his status as a novelist. At the same time, he continued to write romantic short stories such as "Tower of London" and "Maboroshi no Tate" (both 1905), and in "Botchan" he succeeded in creating a refreshing image of a sensitive and straightforward young man.

[Yukio Miyoshi]

The origins of Soseki's literature

His early literary views were embodied in "Kusamakura" (1906). Relying on the thoughts of a painter who seeks "impersonal" beauty, Soseki advocated "wandering around" in a world of hobbies and aesthetics, escaping the tediousness of everyday life. However, as Soseki's awareness as a novelist deepened, he came to reject his otherworldly view of art and aimed to write literature that confronted reality head-on. At the same time, he resolved to devote his life to writing, and in 1907 he left his teaching position to join the Asahi Shimbun Company. His first work after joining the company, "Gubijinso" (1907), depicts the conflict between selfishness and morality by creating a proud and egoistic woman, but from this work onwards, Soseki's style clearly changed and he began to directly depict the contradictions and conflicts hidden in modern Japanese society. "Sanshiro" (1908) depicts the form of love between a simple young man and the precariousness of youth similar to that of a "stray sheep", and "Ten Nights of Dreams" (1908) likens the author's own dreams to criticism of contemporary civilization and the mysteries of human nature. The issues of individual independence and egoism raised through the heroine of "Sanshiro" were further developed into the trilogy "Sorekara" (1909) and "Mon" (1910), which marked the beginning of a theme that persistently pursues the light and dark of human psychology surrounding love. "Sorekara" explores the ethical basis of sexual love by setting the extreme situation of adultery, while "Gate" depicts the bliss and anxiety of a couple bound together by immorality, evoking the incurable loneliness of modern people. Soseki would later give a lecture on "The Modernization of Japan" (1911), in which he harshly criticized the exogenous nature of the hasty modernization that had been brought about by the pressure of the Western powers to open the country, but the origins of Soseki's literature lay in his skepticism of his own contemporary civilization and his insight into the fate of intellectuals.

[Yukio Miyoshi]

Deepening human understanding

In 1910, Soseki went to Shuzenji hot springs to recuperate from a stomach ulcer, where he vomited a large amount of blood and lost consciousness, experiencing what is known as "30 minutes of death." His feelings during that time were recalled in "Omoidasu Koto Nado" (1910-1911), but as his awareness of humanity as a "mortal being" deepened, his criticism of egoism became even more thorough, and he wrote a series of intellectual novels, including "Until the Equinox Pass" (1912), "Kōjin" (1912-1913), "Kokoro" (1914), "Dōkusa" (1915), and "Meian" (1916). "Until the Equinox Pass" is a light-hearted work, but the author's feelings about the loss of his young daughter in real life are the main focus, and in contrast to the pity of the dead, the shallow aspects of life are emphasized. "The Traveler" depicts the lonely hell of an intellectual possessed by an arrogant ego, and warns of the barrenness of love trapped by self-obsession. On the other hand, between "Until the Higan" and "The Traveler" the death of Emperor Meiji and the suicide of Nogi Maresuke took place, and Soseki was particularly deeply moved by Nogi's suicide. "Kokoro" was written as a result of this emotion, and the protagonist, who thoroughly denies himself and sees the limits of egoism that hurts both others and himself at the same time, commits suicide to the "spirit of Meiji" at the start of the new Taisho era. In the following work, "Dousa", he seeks subject matter in the years after returning from studying in England, and reconstructs his memories of his real life to paint a gloomy spiritual landscape of the relative world. In both works, one can see Soseki's intention to confirm the ethical basis for relating to the present, while being aware that his own ideas are "behind the times" (kokoro). It was around the same time that he began to talk about his state of mind of "following heaven and abandoning self". Thus, while yearning for absolute ethics that transcend egoism, Soseki began writing "Light and Darkness," a novel that looks directly at the dark side lurking deep within human existence. It is a long novel that persistently explores the horrific human comedy of interest, love and hate, calculation and strategy inherent in the various human relationships we have in our daily lives, but shortly after beginning the work, his chronic stomach ulcer worsened and he was unable to wake up. On December 9, 1916, he died after suffering from repeated internal bleeding, and "Light and Darkness," which he had been writing while bedridden, was left unfinished. He was 50 years old when he died.

[Yukio Miyoshi]

The influence of Soseki's literature

To the very end, Soseki's literature maintained the method of authentic objective fiction, presenting a literary space through fiction and imagination, and by adhering to a strong sense of philosophy and ethics, he clearly distinguished himself from the naturalism of his time. He depicted a wide variety of themes, such as the rift between East and West, love and egoism, and the loneliness and anxiety of intellectuals, which have attracted many readers as important issues related to modern life and circumstances. In addition to full-length novels, he also wrote short stories such as "Buncho" and "Eijitsu Shohin," as well as excellent works of haiku and Chinese poetry. Soseki was also beloved by many of his students, and he held "Thursday Gatherings" at his home once a week for teacher-student interaction. Such brilliant writers as Toyotaka Komiya, Sohei Morita, Miekichi Suzuki, Jiro Abe, Hyakken Uchida, Yaeko Nogami, and Ryunosuke Akutagawa were raised here, and the school had a great influence on the literature of the Taisho period. His old collection is on display at Tohoku University, and there are memorial museums in Kumamoto and London.

[Yukio Miyoshi]

"The Complete Works of Soseki, 35 volumes (1978-1980, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Natsume Soseki, by Toyotaka Komiya (1938, Iwanami Shoten/1953, Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "Natsume Soseki, by Junzo Karaki (1966, Sobunsha)" ▽ "The Definitive Edition of Natsume Soseki, by Jun Eto (1974, Shinchosha)" ▽ "Chronology of Soseki Research, edited by Masato Ara (1974, Shueisha)" ▽ "Lectures on Natsume Soseki, edited by Yukio Miyoshi et al., 5 volumes (1981-1982, Yuhikaku)"

Natsume Soseki
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Natsume Soseki

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

小説家。本名金之助。慶応(けいおう)3年1月5日（新暦2月9日）に江戸牛込馬場下横町（東京都新宿区牛込喜久井町）に生まれた。

［三好行雄］

生い立ち

父は同町一帯を支配する名主小兵衛直克(こひょうえなおかつ)、母千枝との5男3女の末子であった。父母晩年の子として疎まれ、生後まもなく里子に出され、続いて塩原昌之助の養子になった。9歳のとき養父母が離婚したため夏目家に帰ったが、父母はかならずしも温かく迎えなかった。肉親の愛に恵まれなかった幼時の原体験は漱石を他人の愛情に敏感な内向型の人間に育て、また、肉親のなかにさえ他者をみる非情な人間観を培った。後年の漱石文学が愛とエゴイズムの種々相を描くことになる遠因の一つである。初めは漢学好きの少年として二松学舎(にしょうがくしゃ)などに学んだが、成立学舎を経て大学予備門（東京大学教養学部）に進むころから英文学研究を生涯の仕事として選び、1890年（明治23）に帝国大学文科大学（東大文学部）英文学科に入学した。予備門時代に正岡子規(まさおかしき)を知り、漢詩文を介して親交を結び、俳句の手ほどきを受けた。1893年大学を卒業、一時大学院に籍を置いたが、東京高等師範学校講師、第五高等学校教授を経て、1900年（明治33）には文部省から英語研究のためイギリス留学を命じられるなど、英文学者としての道は順調に伸びていった。その間、1895年から翌年にかけて愛媛県の松山中学校の教師を勤めたが、その体験は『坊つちやん』（1906）に生かされている。

［三好行雄］

小説家の誕生

イギリス留学は足掛け3年に及んだ。帰国後、1903年（明治36）に第一高等学校教授に就任、兼ねて文科大学の講師として英文学を講じた。大学での講義をまとめた『文学論』（1907）と『文学評論』（1909）は、日本人の手になる最初の英文学研究として評価が高い。しかし、漱石自身は早くから東洋の伝統的な文学精神と英文学のパトス（情念）との矛盾に悩み、日本人として異国の文学を研究することの困難と不安を感じ続けていた。教師生活にも耐えがたい嫌悪を覚えるようになった。加えて、1896年に結婚した妻鏡子との不和、旧養父母との金銭上のトラブルなど家庭内の心労も重なり、学生時代からの神経衰弱が高じて、強度の発作に悩むことも多かった。当時の危機的な日々はのちに『道草』（1915）で描かれるが、そうした暗鬱(あんうつ)な心情のカタルシスとして書かれたのが、処女作の『吾輩(わがはい)は猫である』（1905～1906）である。自他を含めて、現実の地平に集う衆愚の生活相が鋭く風刺され、辛辣(しんらつ)に笑い飛ばされている。近代文学に類のないユニークな作風で、闊達(かったつ)自在な語り口と相まって多くの読者を集め、小説家としての地位を不動のものにした。併行して『倫敦塔(ロンドンとう)』や『幻影(まぼろし)の盾』（ともに1905）などのロマンチックな短編も書き継がれ、『坊つちやん』では多感、直情のさわやかな青年像の創出に成功した。

［三好行雄］

漱石文学の原点

初期の文学観は『草枕(くさまくら)』（1906）に具体化されている。「非人情」の美を求める画家の感想に託して、煩わしい日常生活を逃れ、趣味と唯美の世界に遊ぶ「彽徊(ていかい)趣味」をよしとしたのである。しかし、漱石はやがて小説家としての自覚を深めるとともに、出世間の芸術観を自ら否定し、現実と正面から対決する文学を目ざすに至った。同時に、創作に生涯を賭(か)ける決意を固め、1907年に教職を辞して朝日新聞社に入社した。入社第一作の『虞美人草(ぐびじんそう)』（1907）は誇り高い自我の女を創造して利己と道義の対立を描いているが、この作あたりから漱石の作風は明瞭(めいりょう)に変化し、日本の近代社会に潜む矛盾や葛藤(かっとう)を正面から描き出そうとする方向に向かった。『三四郎』（1908）では純朴な青年の愛の形とともに、「迷羊(ストレイシープ)」に似た青春の危うさが描かれ、『夢十夜』（1908）も自分のみた夢に擬して、同時代文明の批判や人間性の謎(なぞ)を語っている。また、『三四郎』のヒロインを通じて問われた個の自立と我執の問題は、さらに『それから』（1909）と『門』（1910）の三部作に発展し、愛をめぐる人間心理の明暗を執拗(しつよう)に追求するテーマの端緒を開くことになった。『それから』は姦通(かんつう)という極限状況を設定して性愛の倫理的根拠を探り、『門』は背徳によって結ばれた夫婦の浄福と不安を描いて、癒(い)やしがたい近代人の孤独を彷彿(ほうふつ)する。漱石はやがて『現代日本の開化』（1911）について講演し、西欧列強の圧力によって開国した性急な近代化の外発性を厳しく批判することになるが、そうした同時代文明への懐疑と知識人の命運の洞察とに、漱石文学の原点があった。

［三好行雄］

人間認識の深化

1910年、漱石は胃潰瘍(いかいよう)の療養に赴いた修善寺(しゅぜんじ)温泉で、大量の吐血のため人事不省に陥り、いわゆる「三十分の死」を経験した。その間の心情は『思ひ出す事など』（1910～1911）に回想されているが、「死すべき者」としての人間認識がさらに深まるとともに、我執への批判もいっそう徹底して、『彼岸過迄(ひがんすぎまで)』（1912）以下『行人(こうじん)』（1912～1913）、『こゝろ』（1914）を経て『道草』（1915）、『明暗』（1916）に至る一連の知識人小説が書かれることになる。『彼岸過迄』は軽い筆致の作品だが、実生活で幼い娘を亡くした作者の感慨が基調に沈み、死者のあわれと対照して浮薄な生の諸相が強調される。『行人』は傲慢(ごうまん)な自我に憑(つ)かれた知識人の孤独地獄を描いて、我執にとらわれた愛の不毛を告知する。他方、『彼岸過迄』と『行人』の間に明治帝の崩御と乃木希典(のぎまれすけ)の殉死があり、漱石はとくに乃木の殉死に大きな感動を受けた。『こゝろ』はその感動を契機として書かれた作品で、徹底した自己否定を貫き、他者と自己を同時に傷つけるエゴイズムの限界を見極めた主人公は、大正という新しい時代を迎えて「明治の精神」に殉死する。続く『道草』ではイギリス留学から帰国後の数年間に題材を求め、実生活の記憶を再構成しながら相対世界の暗鬱な精神的風景画が描かれている。いずれも、自己の思想の「時勢遅れ」（こゝろ）を自覚しながら、なお現在へかかわるための倫理的根拠を確認しようとする意図が読み取れる。「則天去私」の心境について語り始めたのも、同じころである。漱石はこうして、我執を超える絶対の倫理を憧憬(しょうけい)しながら、人間存在の深奥に潜む暗い部分を直視する『明暗』を書き始めた。日常のさまざまな人間関係のはらむ利害と愛憎、打算と策略のおぞましい人間喜劇を執拗に追い続けた長編であるが、起稿後まもなく宿痾(しゅくあ)の胃潰瘍が悪化し、ついに起(た)てなかった。大正5年12月9日、大内出血を繰り返して没し、病臥(びょうが)の間に書き継がれた『明暗』は未完のままに中絶した。享年50歳であった。

［三好行雄］

漱石文学の影響

漱石の文学は虚構と想像力による文学空間の提示という、本格的な客観小説の方法を最後まで失わず、また、強健な思想性と倫理性を貫くことで、同時代の自然主義とは明確な一線を画した。東洋と西洋の亀裂(きれつ)、愛とエゴイズム、知識人の孤独と不安など多彩な主題を描いたが、それらは現代の生と状況にもかかわる重要な問題として多くの読者を集めている。長編小説のほか、『文鳥』『永日(えいじつ)小品』などの短編や俳句・漢詩の秀作もある。漱石はまた多くの門下生に慕われ、師弟交歓の「木曜会」を週一度、自宅で開いた。小宮豊隆(とよたか)、森田草平、鈴木三重吉、阿部次郎、内田百閒(ひゃっけん)、野上弥生子(やえこ)、芥川龍之介(あくたがわりゅうのすけ)らの俊秀が育ち、大正期の市民文学に大きな影響を与えている。東北大学に旧蔵書が架蔵され、熊本市とロンドンに記念館がある。

［三好行雄］

『『漱石全集』全35巻（1978～1980・岩波書店）』▽『小宮豊隆著『夏目漱石』（1938・岩波書店／1953・岩波新書）』▽『唐木順三著『夏目漱石』（1966・創文社）』▽『江藤淳著『決定版夏目漱石』（1974・新潮社）』▽『荒正人編『漱石研究年表』（1974・集英社）』▽『三好行雄他編『講座夏目漱石』全5巻（1981～1982・有斐閣）』