Standard of living

An indicator and concept that indicates the actual standard of living. It is distinct from the "standard of living," which specifies the material and conditions necessary to live a decent life and indicates the standard of living that should be achieved. Measures of standard of living include income level, consumption level, and per capita national income level, but each has its own problems. In other words, because living standards are individual, it is necessary to look at things in detail, not just at the simple national average of income, but also by region, income bracket, household type, industry, and so on. In addition, when making international comparisons, it is necessary to take into account not only conversions based on exchange rates, but also differences in natural factors such as climate and customs, and social factors such as ideology and culture.

When the standard of living is viewed as the level of consumption, in the narrowest sense, it refers to the level (amount of expenditure) and content (structure of expenditure) of consumption expenditure at a given point in time as reflected in the household budget survey. It becomes more accurate if it is viewed in a broader sense, including real consumption expenditure replaced by the input of domestic labor, real assets, and financial assets such as savings. Furthermore, if social capital such as the living environment, such as roads, parks, and housing, as well as benefits from social systems such as public safety and social security are also included, the actual situation can be captured even more accurately, but there are also difficult problems with measurement.

Research on living standards has been conducted in Europe since the 19th century, dating back to household surveys that were conducted with the intention of studying the lives of low-income workers in particular. In Germany, Engel's The Cost of Living of a Belgian Working Family (1895) is well known, and in that study he established Engel's Law regarding the proportion of food costs in a household budget. In Britain, Rowntree's Poverty: A Study of City Life (1901) is well known, in which the concept of the "life cycle" was formed. In this way, the understanding of living standards first developed as an empirical study of poverty, but after World War II, with the arrival of the "affluent society" and awareness of environmental issues, it has also developed as an indicator of the "quality of life" in a sustainable society, and as a clue for demand-consumption analysis.

[Mitsuaki Imai]

"Standard of Living" edited by Ryotaro Idaichi (1964, Shunjusha)" ▽ "Home Economics" edited by Mitsuteru Imai and Gokichi Hotta (1973, Asakura Publishing)" ▽ "Standard of Living" by Akiko Ito (1977, Koseikan)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

暮らし向きの高さと内容が現実にどのようであるかを示す指標・概念。なお、人間らしく生きるために必要とされる物質や条件などを約束し、本来あるべき暮らし向きの高さと内容を示す「生活標準」standard of livingとは区別される。生活水準を計る尺度としては、所得水準、消費水準、1人当り国民所得水準などが用いられるが、それぞれに問題がある。すなわち、生活は個別的であるから、単純な所得の国民的平均だけでなく、地域別、所得階層別、世帯類型別、産業別など、きめ細かくとらえる必要がある。また国際的な比較では、為替(かわせ)率（レート）による換算だけでなく、風土、気候などの自然要因や思想、文化などの社会要因の差も考慮しなければならない。

　生活水準を消費水準でとらえる場合、もっとも狭い意味では、家計調査に表れた、ある時点の消費支出の高さ（支出額）と内容（支出の構造）になる。これらに家事労働の投入によって代替される実質的な消費支出や、実物資産、貯蓄などの金融資産を含め、より広い意味でとらえればいっそう確かなものとなる。さらに道路、公園、住宅などの生活環境といった社会資本や、治安状況、社会保障など社会制度からの便益をも含めれば、なおいっそう確かに実態をとらえることができるが、それには測定上むずかしい問題もある。

　生活水準についての研究は19世紀からヨーロッパでなされ、とくに低所得労働者の生活研究を意図して行われるようになった家計調査にさかのぼる。ドイツではエンゲルの『ベルギー労働者家族の生活費』（1895）がよく知られているが、その研究のなかで家計に占める食費の割合についての「エンゲルの法則」が定立された。イギリスではロウントリイの『貧困――都市生活の研究』（1901）が有名で、そのなかで「ライフ・サイクル」の概念が形成された。このように生活水準の認識は、貧困の実証的研究としてまず発展してきたが、第二次世界大戦後は「豊かな社会」の到来、さらには環境問題の自覚に伴う持続可能な社会における「生活の質」の指標として、需要―消費分析の手掛りとしても展開をみせている。

［今井光映］

『伊大知良太郎編『生活水準』（1964・春秋社）』▽『今井光映・堀田剛吉編『家政経済学』（1973・朝倉書店）』▽『伊藤秋子著『生活水準』（1977・光生館）』

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