Jainism - Jainism (English spelling)

Japanese: ジャイナ教 - じゃいなきょう(英語表記)Jaina
Jainism - Jainism (English spelling)

It is an Indian religion that was founded by Mahavira, a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, around the 6th to 5th century BC, and is still alive today. It is known for its strict asceticism, especially the vow of Ahimsa (not to harm any living beings, not to kill).

[Michihiko Yajima]

origin

Mahavira was originally an honorific meaning "great hero" and his real name was Vardhamana (meaning "bringer of prosperity"). He was born in Kunda village near Vaishali city in Magadha (present-day Bihar state) to his father Siddhartha, a Kshatriya (warrior class), and mother Trishala. His clan name was Jnatri (colloquially Naya or Nata). It is said that he married a princess named Yashoda at a young age and had a daughter, but this is a matter of debate. At the age of 30, he became a monk and joined the group of ascetics known as the Nigantha sect. After 12 years of severe asceticism, he attained Kevala Jnana (perfect knowledge) and became a Jina (victor). Jainism means "the teachings of Jina". He continued his travels while preaching his teachings for the next 30 years, and passed away at the age of 72 in the village of Paba near Pataliputra (present-day Patna). His death is estimated to have occurred around 477 B.C. In Buddhist scriptures, he is listed as Niganta Nataputta, or "a member of the Jnatri clan of the Niganta sect," among the six representative free thinkers of the time (the Six Heretical Masters).

In Jain beliefs, there were already 23 Tirthankaras (Jinas) before Mahavira, and the teachings of truth were passed down successively from the founder Rishabha. According to this, Mahavira would be the 24th Jina, but the previous 23rd Jina, Parshva, is considered to be a real historical figure who led the Nigantha sect. If Mahavira, who became a monk and joined the Nigantha sect, partially improved on Mahavira's teachings and established Jainism, it may be possible to say that Parshva was the true founder.

[Michihiko Yajima]

Ideological characteristics

Concerned about the current state of the world, where "living things torment other living things," Mahavira particularly criticized the sacrificial festivals performed by Brahmins at that time, and also denied the authority of the Vedic scriptures on which they relied. He acknowledged the existence of not only animals and plants, but also all living things, large and small, that depend on earth, water, fire, and air, and appealed for the dignity of life. He then presented his own teachings from a new, rationalistic standpoint. Like the free thinkers of the time, such as Sanjaya and Gautama Buddha, he also deeply explored the meaning of truth. He argued that many perspectives (nayas) are necessary to understand things, and that one should always avoid one-sided judgments and make relative considerations. He claimed that truth should be expressed in various ways through words. This is the indefiniteness and relativism (anekāntābāda) that characterizes Mahavira's thought. As a concrete way of expressing things in language, he suggested that the qualifier "syāt (from a certain point of view)" should always be added, and presented the so-called syādbāda theory. For this reason, Jains are also called Syadbadins. Jainism has come to occupy an important position in the history of Indian thought, opposing other schools of thought with this relativism as its ideological pillar.

[Michihiko Yajima]

Doctrine and Practice

In Jainism, all beings are broadly divided into spirits (jivas) and non-spirits (ajivas), and the latter are further divided into four categories: conditions of motion (dharma), conditions of rest (adharma), emptiness (akasha), and matter (pudgala). Together, these are called the "five aggregates of beings" (pancha astikayas). Time (kāla) may also be added. The universe is made up of the worlds (lokas) and non-worlds (alokas), the worlds being composed of these substances, while the non-worlds are filled only with emptiness. Spirits include all beings with senses and consciousness. On the surface, they are broadly divided into those who have attained liberation (muktas) and those who are in transmigration (samsārins), the former beings who have attained liberation (moksha), i.e., perfected beings (siddhas), and the latter beings that are sentient beings, including gods and beings in hell. It teaches that the soul wanders through a world of suffering called samsaram due to the influx of karma (karman) (āsrabha) and bondage (bandha), but that by meditating and practicing austerities, and achieving the prevention of new karma (sambara) and the removal of past karma (nirjara), the soul can attain liberation and regain its original pure and perfect form. The religious ideal that Jains aspire to is summarized in the three treasures (tri ratnas): right faith (darshana), knowledge (jnana), and action (charitra). Right action is living a right practical life according to the prescribed precepts, and its basis is the five great vows (mahabrata) for monks, namely (1) not taking the life of any living being (ahimsa), (2) not telling lies (abstinence), (3) not stealing (abstinence), (4) not engaging in sexual intercourse (abstinence), and (5) not possessing anything (abstinence). Lay people who cannot keep the great vows must content themselves with the minor vows (anubrata) of the same item, but their ideal is to keep them as close to monkhood as possible. The abstinence vow is one of the characteristics of their religious practice, and is especially practiced in the conservative Ragyot tradition. Moreover, the first vow, ahimsa, is the most important to observe. Jainism recognizes the existence of souls in everything, from animals and plants to earth, water, fire, and air, so one must take great care at every opportunity not to break the ahimsa vow. However, the best way to maintain ahimsa is fasting, and the most ideal death is to continue fasting until death (sallekhana). However, fasting to death is permitted, in principle, only in cases of famine, old age, or incurable illness.

[Michihiko Yajima]

Scriptures and more

Jain scriptures are called Agamas or Siddhantas, and the White Robe sect has seven parts, including Anga, Upanga, and Cheda, totaling 45 books. The contents are diverse, including doctrines, the way of life for monks and laypeople, and stories and fables that embody them. The oldest and most reliable biography of Mahavira can be found in the Angga-affiliated Ácāra. The Cheda-affiliated Kalpa Sutra, which deals with the way of life in the rainy season and the biographies of the Jinas, is the most popular scripture, and the custom of reciting it at the Pariushana festival continues to this day. It is also known for its illustrated manuscripts. The White Robe sect's scriptures are written in the vernacular Ardhamagadhi, while the Nadra sect rejects this and transmits its own scriptures in the vernacular Shaurasini. Kundakunda, a scholar of the same sect, also used this language. The use of vernacular language and the flourishing of vernacular literature characterize the history of Jain literature, and many vocabularies and grammars were created by Hemacandra and others. The use of Sanskrit also began with the doctrinal texts of Umasvati and later became widespread.

[Michihiko Yajima]

History of the organization

During Mahavira's lifetime, he received the devotees and protection of King Seniya (Bimbisara in Buddhism) of Magadha and his prince Kunya (Ajatasattu), and it is believed that he had already formed a strong religious organization, but after his death, it was successively inherited by his disciple (Ganadhara "leader of the religious organization"), Sudharman, and others. During the Mauryan period, the organization expanded under the patronage of King Chandragupta and others. In examining the history of Jainism after that, it is particularly important to trace the split between the White Robe Sect (Svetambara) and the Naked Sect (Digambara) and the relationship between the two sects. The seeds of the split between the two sects can be seen as early as the 3rd century BCE, but the clear split occurred around the 3rd century CE. The differences between the two sects are, for example, that while the White Robe Sect accepts monks and nuns wearing clothes, the Naturist Sect insists on practicing nakedness, as it goes against the teaching of non-possession, and that the Naturist Sect does not recognize the liberation of women who cannot practice nakedness. In general, the White Robe Sect is a progressive group that is tolerant, while the Naturist Sect is a conservative group that is strict. Although the two sects transmit different scriptures, there are no doctrinal differences, and the main differences are in practice, as mentioned above. The two sects each gave rise to further minor divisions and have risen and fallen repeatedly. In the Middle Ages, the invasion of Islam into India dealt a major blow to Jainism, but this was the catalyst for the birth of the Lonkar sect, a restorationist sect that rejected the worship of Jina statues, and the tradition of Jainism did not die out.

[Michihiko Yajima]

Current Status

Currently, the white-robed sect is mostly found in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Mumbai (Bombay). It is divided into two main sects, the Dehrabasi sect, who worship statues in temples, and the Sthanakbasi sect, who do not. The naturists are mostly concentrated in South India, and there are two sects, Therapypanti and Bhispanti, but they only have slight differences in their daily rituals. The main festivals celebrated by Jains are Mahavira Jayanti (March-April), which celebrates the birth of Mahavira, Diwali (10 days after the Hindu Diwali) which is held to commemorate his death (complete liberation), and Pariushana (August-September), which marks the end of the rainy season. Meditation and fasting are indispensable in these festivals, and the holy places are filled with devout believers. Jain holy places are called tirtas, and are the places where the Jain masters are said to have attained enlightenment or passed away. In particular, large-scale holy places built around the 10th century mainly in Western India (such as Mount Abu, Palitan (Shatrunjaya), Girnar, etc.), as well as the sacred site of Shravanabeelgora in South India, where a huge stone statue of Gommateshvara (Bahubali) stands, maintain their grand scale even today and are crowded with pilgrims. Jains, who are prohibited from killing, are concentrated in most of their occupations related to commerce, and Jain merchants, who are skilled in business, are well known. There are currently about 2.6 million Jains, less than 0.5% of the total population, but the social influence of Jains in Indian society is by no means small.

[Michihiko Yajima]

Kanakura Ensho, "Studies on Indian Spiritual Culture - With a Special Focus on Jaina" (1944, Baifukan) Sakamoto Tomotada, "Jain Meditation Methods - Theory and Practice of Six Perception Meditation Methods" (1999, Nombre Publishing) W. Schubring, "The Doctrine of the Jainas" (tr. from the revised German edition by W. Beurlen) (1962, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi) S. Stevenson, "The Heart of Jainism" (1970, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi) (reprint)

[References] | Umasvati | Jain Art | Hemachandra | Mahavira | Six Heresies

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

紀元前6~前5世紀ごろ、ゴータマ・ブッダ(釈迦(しゃか))とほぼ同時代のマハービーラによって創設され、今日もなお生命を保つインドの宗教。とくにアヒンサー(生きものを傷つけないこと、不殺生(ふせっしょう))の誓戒を柱とする厳格な禁欲主義で知られる。

[矢島道彦]

起源

マハービーラは元来「偉大な勇者」を意味する尊称で、本名をバルダマーナ(「繁栄をもたらす者」の意)という。彼はマガダ(現ビハール州)の都市バイシャーリー市近郊のクンダ村で、クシャトリヤ(武人階級)の父シッダールタと母トリシャラーの間に生まれた。氏族名をジュニャートリ(俗語形ナーヤまたはナータ)といった。若くしてヤショーダーという名の姫を迎え、1女をもうけたともいわれるが、この点については賛否が分かれる。30歳で出家し、ニガンタ派とよばれる修行者の群れに身を投じて、12年に及ぶ厳しい苦行ののち、ケーバラ・ジュニャーナ(完全知)を体得してジナ(勝利者)となった。ジャイナ教とは「ジナの教え」を意味する。その後30年間教えを説き広めながら、遍歴の旅を続け、72歳でパータリプトラ(現パトナ)近郊のパーバー村において世を去ったという。その没年は前477年ごろと推定される。仏典では、当時の代表的な6人の自由思想家(六師外道(ろくしげどう))のなかに、ニガンタ・ナータプッタ、すなわち「ニガンタ派のジュニャートリ氏族出身者」として出ている。

 ジャイナ教徒の信仰では、マハービーラ以前にすでに23人のティールタンカラ(渡しをつくる人=ジナ)とよばれる祖師たちがいて、真理の教えはその始祖リシャバ以来、順次受け継がれてきたものとされる。これによると、マハービーラは第24番目のジナとなるが、直前の第23祖パールシュバはニガンタ派を率いていた歴史的実在の人物と考えられる。ニガンタ派に出家したマハービーラが、彼の教えに部分的に改良を加え、ジャイナ教を確立したとすれば、パールシュバこそ真の創始者であったということもできるかもしれない。

[矢島道彦]

思想的特徴

「生きものが生きものを苦しめる」世界の現状を憂慮して、マハービーラは、当時バラモン教徒の間で行われていた犠牲祭をとくに批判し、またあわせて、彼らの依拠していたベーダ聖典の権威も否定した。彼は、動植物はもちろんのこと、地・水・火・大気をよりどころとする大小さまざまな生物の存在を認め、生命の尊厳を訴えた。そして、新たに合理主義的な立場から独自の教えを示した。サンジャヤやゴータマ・ブッダなど当時の自由思想家たちと同様、彼もまた真理とは何かについて深く模索した。事物の認識には多くの観方(みかた)(ナヤ)が必要であり、つねに一方的な判断を避けて相対的な考察を行うべきである。真理はことばによって多様に言い表されるべきものであると主張した。これがマハービーラの思想を特徴づける不定主義・相対主義(アネーカーンタ・バーダ)である。具体的な言語表現の仕方として、つねに「スヤート(ある点からすると)」という限定詞をつけよといい、いわゆるスヤードバーダの理論を示した。このためジャイナ教徒はスヤードバーディンともよばれる。ジャイナ教はこのような相対主義を思想的支柱として他の諸学派に対抗し、インド思想史のうえでも無視できない位置を占めるに至った。

[矢島道彦]

教義と実践

ジャイナ教では、あらゆる存在物を霊魂(ジーバ)と非霊魂(アジーバ)とに大別し、後者をさらに運動の条件(ダルマ)、静止の条件(アダルマ)、虚空(こくう)(アーカーシャ)、物質(プドガラ)の4種に分け、あわせて「五つの存在の集まり」(パンチャ・アスティカーヤ)という。これに時間(カーラ)を加えることもある。宇宙は世界(ローカ)と非世界(アローカ)よりなり、世界はそれらの諸実体で構成され、一方、非世界には虚空のみ充満する。霊魂は感覚や意識をもつものいっさいを含む。それは表面上、解脱(げだつ)者(ムクタ)と輪廻(りんね)者(サンサーリン)とに大別され、前者は解脱(モークシャ)を得たもの、すなわち完成者(シッダ)、後者は神々や地獄の生きものを含めた生きとし生けるものをいう。霊魂は業(ごう)(カルマン)の流入(アースラバ)と束縛(バンダ)によって苦しみの輪廻世界をさまよっているが、瞑想(めいそう)と苦行を行い、新たな業の防止(サンバラ)と過去の業の除去(ニルジャラー)を達成すれば解脱を得て、本来の純粋で完全な姿を回復できると説く。ジャイナ教徒の目ざす宗教的理想は、三つの宝(トリ・ラトナ)とよばれる正しい信仰(ダルシャナ)と知識(ジュニャーナ)と行為(チャーリトラ)に集約されるが、正しい行為とは、定められた戒律に従って正しい実践生活を送ることであり、その基本は、出家のための五つの大誓戒(マハーブラタ)、すなわち(1)生きものの命を奪わないこと(不殺生、アヒンサー)、(2)嘘(うそ)をつかないこと(不妄語)、(3)盗みをしないこと(不盗)、(4)性的行為をしないこと(不淫(ふいん))、(5)なにものも所有しないこと(無所有)、である。大誓戒を守りきれない在家者は同項目の小誓戒(アヌブラタ)に甘んじなければならないが、しかし可能な限り遵守して出家に近づくことが彼らの理想とされる。無所有の誓戒はこの教徒の宗教実践を特徴づけるものの一つで、とくに保守的な裸行(らぎょう)派の伝統に生きる。また第一の誓戒、アヒンサーの遵守はもっとも重要である。ジャイナ教では動植物はもちろん、地・水・火・大気にまで至るあらゆるものに霊魂の存在を認めたから、アヒンサーの誓戒を破らぬよう、あらゆる機会に細心の注意を払わなければならない。しかしアヒンサーを守るための最良の方法は断食であり、もっとも理想的な死は、断食を続行して死に至ること(サッレーカナー)である。ただしこの断食死は、原則として飢饉(ききん)、老齢、不治の病などに限って許される。

[矢島道彦]

聖典その他

ジャイナ教の聖典はアーガマあるいはシッダーンタとよばれ、白衣(びゃくえ)派ではアンガ、ウパーンガ、チェーダなどの7部、計45の典籍をもつ。内容は教義や出家・在家の生活法、またそれらを盛った説話・寓話(ぐうわ)など多岐にわたる。アンガ所属の『アーチャーラ』にはもっとも古くかつ信頼できるマハービーラの伝記がみえる。雨期の生活法やジナたちの伝記を扱うチェーダ所属の『カルパ・スートラ』はもっとも人気のある聖典で、パリウシャナ祭での朗詠の習わしはいまも続く。また絵入り写本でも知られている。白衣派の聖典は俗語アルダマーガディーで書かれ、一方裸行派はこれを否認して、俗語シャウラセーニーで独自の聖典を伝える。同派の学匠クンダクンダもこの言語を用いた。俗語の使用と俗語文学の隆盛はジャイナ教の文学史を特徴づけ、ヘーマチャンドラなどにより字彙(じい)や文典も多数つくられた。サンスクリット語の使用もウマースバーティの教義書に始まり、のちには一般化した。

[矢島道彦]

教団史

マハービーラ在世中、マガダのセーニヤ(仏教のビンビサーラ)王やその王子クーニヤ(アジャータサットゥ)などの帰依(きえ)・保護を受け、すでに強固な教団を形成していたと思われるが、没後は高弟(ガナダラ「教団の統率者」)のスダルマンなどによって順次受け継がれていった。マウリヤ朝時代にチャンドラグプタ王などの庇護(ひご)を得て教団の拡張をみた。以降のジャイナ教団史をみるうえでは、とくに白衣派(シュベーターンバラ)と裸行派(ディガンバラ)の分裂と両派の関係をたどることが重要となる。両派の分裂はすでに前3世紀にその萌芽(ほうが)が認められるが、明らかな分裂は後3世紀ころに起こった。両派の相違点は、たとえば、白衣派が僧尼の着衣を容認するのに対して、裸行派は無所有の教えに反するとして裸行の遵守を主張すること、また裸行派は裸行を実践できない女性の解脱を認めないことなどで、概して白衣派は寛容主義にたつ進歩的グループ、裸行派は厳格主義に徹する保守的グループといえる。両派は異なる聖典を伝えているが、教理上の差異はみられず、前記のような実践面での相違が主たるものである。両派はそれぞれさらに細かな分裂を生み、また消長を繰り返した。中世、イスラム教徒のインド侵入は、ジャイナ教にも大きな打撃を被らせたが、むしろそれを契機としてジナ尊像の礼拝を否定する復古主義のローンカー派の誕生をみるなど、ジャイナ教の伝統はとだえることはなかった。

[矢島道彦]

現況

現在、白衣派の多くみられるのはグジャラート、ラージャスターンの両州、ムンバイ(ボンベイ)などである。寺院で尊像を礼拝するデーフラーバーシー派とこれを行わないスターナクバーシー派に大別される。裸行派はほとんど南インドに集中しており、これにテーラーパンティとビースパンティの2派があるが、生活儀礼のうえでわずかな相違がみられるだけである。ジャイナ教徒が行っている祭りとしては、マハービーラの誕生を祝うマハービーラ・ジャヤンティ(3~4月)、その逝去(完全な解脱)にちなんで行われるディーワーリー祭(ヒンドゥー教徒のディーワーリー祭の10日後)、雨期の終わりのパリウシャナ祭(8~9月)などが主たるものである。これらの祭りでは、瞑想(めいそう)と断食は欠かすことのできないものとなっており、また聖地は敬虔(けいけん)な信者たちであふれる。ジャイナ教の聖地はティールタとよばれ、祖師たちの解脱や逝去がそこで起こったとされる土地である。とくに10世紀前後より西インドを中心につくられた大規模な聖地(たとえばアーブー山、パーリーターナー(シャトルンジャヤ)、ギルナールなど)、またゴンマテーシュバラ(バーフバリ)の巨大な石像の建つ南インドの聖地シュラバナベールゴーラなどは、今日もその壮大なスケールを保ち、参詣(さんけい)の人々でにぎわっている。殺生を禁じられたジャイナ教徒の職業はほとんど商業関係に集中しており、商才にたけたジャイナ商人はつとに有名である。ジャイナ教徒の数は現在260万人ほどで、全人口の0.5%にも満たないが、インド社会におけるジャイナ教徒の社会的勢力はけっして小さくない。

[矢島道彦]

『金倉円照著『印度精神文化の研究――特にヂャイナを中心として』(1944・培風館)』『坂本知忠著『ジャイナ教の瞑想法――6つの知覚瞑想法の理論と実践』(1999・ノンブル社)』『W. SchubringThe Doctrine of the Jainas (tr. from the revised German edition by W. Beurlen) (1962, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi)』『S. StevensonThe Heart of Jainism (1970, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi) (reprint)』

[参照項目] | ウマースバーティ | ジャイナ教美術 | ヘーマチャンドラ | マハービーラ | 六師外道

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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