Generally, this refers to bonds issued by the government that take more than one fiscal year from issue to redemption. In some cases, it also includes Financing Bills (FB), which are issued within one fiscal year to cover temporary funding shortages. In February 2009, Financing Bills began to be issued together with Treasury Bills (TB), and are now issued and circulated in the market under the unified name Treasury Discount Bills (T-Bills), but they have different institutional status. With some exceptions, the issuance limits for various government bonds and Financing Bills are set in the general budget rules for each fiscal year. Government bonds are primarily issued to raise financial resources, but some are also issued as a means of national payment. These are called "subsidy bonds." There are "subsidy bonds" in the narrow sense, which are issued in lieu of condolence money to the families of war dead, "subscription bonds," which are a type of subsidy bond issued in lieu of investments or contributions to international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), "Development Bank of Japan Inc. Crisis Response Operations Government Bonds," and "Nuclear Damage Compensation and Decommissioning Facilitation Corporation Government Bonds." [Takashi Asaba August 21, 2018] Finances and National BondsThere are many types of government bonds. If we think of government bonds as a means of supplementing budgetary financial resources, the classification according to the accounting method used to issue them and the role of each type of government bond are important. Government bonds issued to raise funds for the general account are called new government bonds. New government bonds are divided into construction bonds and deficit bonds according to the legal basis and the purpose of the bonds. Construction bonds are issued based on Article 4 of the Financial Law, so they are sometimes called Article 4 bonds. Deficit bonds are issued based on the special law, so they are sometimes called special bonds. In the past, special laws were enacted every year to issue deficit bonds, but since the middle of fiscal 2012, they have been issued based on special laws that apply over multiple years. New government bonds are government bonds in the narrow sense, and when setting a target for the amount of government bonds to be issued, new government bonds are sometimes referred to without any special mention. Government bonds issued by the general account also include Ministry of Finance securities based on Article 7 of the Financial Law. These are short-term government securities to cover the daily cash flow of the national treasury, and are redeemed with the revenue of the relevant fiscal year and are not included in the budget except for interest payments. Special accounts also issue government bonds. A large amount of government bonds mature every year in the Government Bond Consolidation Fund Special Account, which handles the accounting for the redemption of government bonds. Rather than redeeming all of these government bonds (cash redemption), many are refinanced by issuing new government bonds (refinancing redemption). Since the national debt does not increase, this is called a refinancing government bond, or more commonly, a refunding bond. The Fiscal Investment and Loan Special Account, which handles the accounting for fiscal investment and loan, also issues government bonds. These are Fiscal Investment and Loan Special Account government bonds, and are called Fiscal Investment and Loan Bonds. Fiscal Investment and Loan Bonds are the source of loans from fiscal loan funds to government-related organizations, independent administrative agencies, and other fiscal investment and loan institutions. In principle, repayment of Fiscal Investment and Loan Bonds is made from business profits and the like, and it is assumed that no tax money is used, so they are clearly distinguished from ordinary government bonds such as construction bonds, deficit bonds, and refunding bonds. Refinancing bonds and FILP bonds are issued in accordance with the Special Accounts Act. The FILP Special Account also issues Fiscal Loan Fund Securities, a type of short-term government securities, based on the Fiscal Loan Fund Act. The Great East Japan Earthquake Reconstruction Special Account also issues reconstruction bonds in accordance with the Reconstruction Finance Securing Act. Reconstruction bonds were issued in the general account only in the FY2011 supplementary budget (No. 3), but from the following year, FY2012, they began to be issued in special accounts. Other government short-term securities include foreign exchange fund securities in the Foreign Exchange Fund Special Account, food securities in the Food Management Special Account, and oil securities and nuclear damage compensation support securities in the Energy Measures Special Account. These government short-term securities are based on the Special Accounts Act and in principle must be redeemed within the year of issue, but in reality, foreign exchange fund securities, food securities, and oil securities permanently have balances that extend beyond the fiscal year. [Takashi Asaba August 21, 2018] National Debt Management PolicyThe government must steadily absorb government bonds to secure financial resources, and raise funds at low interest rates to reduce the future burden on the people. The various measures implemented for this purpose are called government bond management policies. One of the government bond management policies in Japan is the formulation of a government bond issuance plan for each fiscal year. In the government bond issuance plan, the planned amount of government bonds to be issued, the calendar-based amount of public issuance, and the planned amount of government guaranteed bonds are announced in line with the budget. In preparing the plan, emphasis is placed on dialogue with the market through various roundtables such as the "Meeting of Special Participants in the Government Bond Market" and the "Forum on State Debt Management." In order to ensure stable absorption in the issuance market, the government bond market special participants system, a Japanese version of the primary dealer system, was introduced in October 2004. This system aims to ensure stable absorption and liquidity of government bonds by granting special qualifications to securities companies that meet certain conditions, while imposing the responsibility for bidding and winning. In addition, efforts are being made to diversify the government bond holder base through overseas IR (overseas investor relations) and other measures. When issuing bonds, it is necessary to consider whether to issue them domestically or overseas. Government bonds issued domestically are called domestic bonds, and government bonds issued overseas are called foreign bonds. However, the Japanese government has not issued foreign bonds since fiscal 1968 (Showa 43). The last redemption was completed in fiscal 1988, and as of fiscal 2018 there are no foreign bonds in the balance. Next, the allocation of the issue method is also important. Issue methods are divided into market issuance, for individuals, and for the public sector. Market issuance refers to issuance to financial institutions in the city through public bidding, etc. Market issuance includes price (yield) competitive bidding, in which bidders bid their desired successful bid price (or yield) and desired successful bid amount in response to the issuance conditions presented by the Ministry of Finance, and the issue price and issue amount are determined based on this; non-competitive bidding for small and medium-sized bidders, in which the issue price is the weighted average price in the price competitive bidding; and non-price competitive bidding I and non-price competitive bidding II, in which only special participants in the government bond market are eligible to participate. The bonds for individuals are issued only to individuals as part of an effort to diversify the bondholder base, and there is a new over-the-counter sales method for both individual and general interest-bearing government bonds, which are sold at various financial institutions. The public sector refers to those absorbed by the Bank of Japan. The Bank of Japan undertakes replacement bonds only within the range of the redemption amount of government bonds held by the Bank of Japan, which is permitted as an exception under the Financial Law. This is generally called replacement underwriting. [Takashi Asaba August 21, 2018] Government bonds in the marketEven if the accounting and legal basis for issuing them are different, they are traded in the market as financial products without distinction. Therefore, in the government bond market, it is important to distinguish them by interest rate and redemption period. First, in terms of interest rate, they are broadly divided into coupon-bearing government bonds, discount government bonds, and installment redemption government bonds. Interest-bearing government bonds are government bonds that pay interest at regular intervals and are redeemed at face value at maturity. Interest is usually paid semi-annually. Discount government bonds, on the other hand, are issued at a price that is a discount from the face value by an amount equivalent to the interest, and no interest is paid during the issue, so the government bonds are redeemed at face value at maturity. Interest-free installment redemption government bonds are limited to issuance government bonds. Interest-bearing government bonds are further divided into fixed-rate, floating-rate, and inflation-indexed bonds. Fixed-rate government bonds are government bonds whose interest rate and interest amount are the same for all interest payments. Floating-rate government bonds are government bonds whose interest rate changes according to market fluctuations. The interest rate is revised with each interest payment. The principal amount of inflation-indexed government bonds increases or decreases in line with consumer price trends. For example, if the consumer price index rises after the issuance of an inflation-indexed government bond, the principal amount will increase according to the rate of increase (the principal amount after the increase is called the notional principal amount). The redemption amount is the notional principal amount at the time of redemption. The amount of interest is calculated by multiplying the notional principal amount at the time of each interest payment by the nominal interest rate. Since the nominal interest rate is fixed at the time of issuance, if the notional principal amount increases due to inflation, the amount of interest also increases. There are usually four maturity categories for government bonds, based on the maturity period between issuance and redemption: ultra-long-term bonds with maturities of 20 to 40 years, long-term bonds with maturities of 10 years, medium-term bonds with maturities of 2 to 5 years, and short-term bonds with maturities of 2 months to 1 year. [Takashi Asaba August 21, 2018] History of Japanese Government BondsJapan's first national bond issue was a pound-denominated bond issued in London in 1870 (Meiji 3) for railway construction. The interest rate was 9%, the maturity was 13 years, and the bonds were secured by customs revenues and railway revenues as additional collateral. After that, after issuing national bonds to settle the debts of former feudal domains, national bond issues became prominent to raise funds for wars such as the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), and the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). Then, due to World War II (Pacific War, 1941-1945), the balance of national debt exceeded the size of the economy, which caused severe inflation after the war. After the Second World War, the Public Finance Law was enacted, and from the first budget formulated under it, from the 1947 budget to the initial budget for 1965, the government adhered to the principle of no bond issuance set out in Article 4 of the Public Finance Law, and did not issue any government bonds to raise funds, except for grant bonds, etc. However, during this period, local governments not only issued construction bonds, but also deficit bonds in some years. The first bond issue after the Fiscal Law was enacted was in the 1965 supplementary budget. The previous year, 1964, saw the Tokyo Olympics being held, marking the peak of the first half of the high economic growth period. The 1965 budget had set a high growth target for tax revenue, but the economy fell into a recession and tax revenues projected in the budget fell short. As a result, deficit bonds were issued in the supplementary budget. Then, in the following year, 1966, construction bonds were issued in the initial budget, marking a shift in bond issuance policy. Construction bonds have been issued ever since. Although the government shifted to a bond issuing policy, no deficit bonds were issued until fiscal 1974 due to the continued high economic growth until the first oil shock in 1973. The amount of construction bonds issued was also well-controlled. Deficit bonds were issued again in the fiscal 1975 supplementary budget, and the subsequent regular issuance of deficit bonds was accompanied by a rapid increase in the overall issuance of government bonds, ushering in an era of mass issuance. The background to this was that while the growth in tax revenues had shrunk with the end of the high economic growth period, expenditures had tended to expand due to the implementation of large-scale projects based on the New Comprehensive National Development Plan (Shin Zenso) and the introduction of a child allowance system. This expansion of government bond issuance led to calls for fiscal reconstruction, and the goal of zero deficit bond issuance was set. The increase in tax revenues due to the bubble economy in the late 1980s led to zero new deficit bond issuance from 1991 to 1993 (Heisei 3-5). However, by that time the bubble had already burst, and government bond issuance expanded further. This was accelerated by the 1998 supplementary budget, which introduced economic measures in response to the Asian currency crisis (1997) after the bursting of the IT (information technology) bubble. More than twice the amount of government bonds were budgeted in this budget, and this came to be called unrestrained government bond issuance. Due to the Izanami boom (2002-2008) and structural reforms, government bond issuance began to decline from fiscal 2005. However, due to the global recession triggered by the Lehman Shock, government bond issuance began to increase again from fiscal 2008. In particular, the fiscal 2009 supplementary budget associated with economic stimulus measures far exceeded the level of the period of unrestrained government bond issuance, and government bonds exceeded taxes as a source of revenue for the general account. Since then, government bond issuance in the general account has been on a gradual downward trend, but Japan still has a high level of government bond issuance and the highest outstanding government bond balance by international standards. In the initial budget for fiscal 2018, the general account government bond issuance amounted to 6 trillion yen in construction bonds and 28 trillion yen in deficit bonds. In addition, there were 103 trillion yen in refinancing bonds, 1 trillion yen in reconstruction bonds, and 12 trillion yen in FILP bonds. The projected outstanding government bond balance at the end of fiscal 2018 is 273 trillion yen in construction bonds, 604 trillion yen in deficit bonds (including special pension bonds, etc.), 6 trillion yen in reconstruction bonds, and 94 trillion yen in FILP bonds. [Takashi Asaba August 21, 2018] Subsequent developmentsSince the 1990s, the government's general account expenditures have exceeded 100 trillion yen due to the collapse of the bubble economy, economic measures after the Lehman Shock, responses to the Great East Japan Earthquake and COVID-19, and the increase in social security costs due to the aging population. Meanwhile, general account tax revenues have been sluggish at an upper limit of around 60 trillion yen, and the gap between the two has been widening year by year, so much so that it is called the "crocodile's mouth." To fill this gap, Japan has the world's highest level of outstanding government bonds. The expected outstanding government bonds at the end of fiscal 2021 (Reiwa 3) are 285 trillion yen in construction bonds, 700 trillion yen in deficit bonds (including special pension bonds), 0.8 trillion yen in reconstruction bonds, and 140 trillion yen in fiscal investment and loan bonds. In order to achieve fiscal soundness, the government has set a goal of achieving a primary balance (basic fiscal balance) that covers expenditures without relying on government bonds, but the target year for achieving this has been repeatedly postponed. [Takeshi Yano August 20, 2021] "A 300-Year History of Government Bonds and Interest Rates: Government Debt Management Policies in the UK, the US, and Japan" by Akio Makabe, Shinsuke Tamaki, and Kenichi Hirayama (2005, Toyo Keizai Inc.) " "A Postwar History of the Expansion of Government Bonds: Testimony from the Field 1947-2013" by Junichi Yonezawa (2013, Kinzai Institute of Financial Affairs)" "The Expansion and Collapse of Japanese Government Bonds: Japan's Financial and Monetary Policies" by Jun Shirota (2017, Bunshindo) [Reference items] | | | | | | |Financial | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
一般的に国が発行する債券のうち、発行から償還まで一会計年度を超えるものをさす。一時的な資金不足を補うため、一会計年度内で履行される政府短期証券(FB:Financing Bills)を含む場合もある。なお、政府短期証券は2009年(平成21)2月より割引短期国庫債券(TB:Treasury Bills)との統合発行を開始し、国庫短期証券(T-Bill:Treasury Discount Bills)という統一名称で市場において発行・流通しているが、制度上の位置づけは別のものである。各種の国債や政府短期証券は、一部を除き発行限度額が毎年度の予算総則において設定されている。 国債はおもに財源調達を目的とするものであるが、このほか、国の支払い手段として発行されるものもある。それが、交付国債である。戦没者遺族などへの弔慰金等のかわりとして交付される狭義の交付国債や、交付国債の一種として国際通貨基金(IMF)など国際機関への出資や拠出にかえて発行される出資・拠出国債、株式会社日本政策投資銀行危機対応業務国債や原子力損害賠償・廃炉等支援機構国債がある。 [浅羽隆史 2018年8月21日] 財政と国債国債には、数多くの種類が存在する。国債をあくまで予算上の財源の補填(ほてん)手段と考えれば、発行する会計による区分と、それぞれの国債の役割が重要である。 一般会計の財源調達として発行する国債は、新規財源債とよばれる。新規財源債は、根拠法と使途により、建設国債と赤字国債に分けられる。建設国債は財政法第4条に基づき発行されるため、4条国債とよばれることがある。一方、赤字国債の根拠法は特例法であるため、特例国債とよばれることがある。かつては赤字国債の発行にあたり毎年度特例法を制定していたが、2012年度の途中からは複数年度にわたり適用される特例法に基づいて発行されている。新規財源債は狭義の国債であり、国債発行額の目標を設定する場合など、とくに断ることなく新規財源債をさすことがある。一般会計が発行する国債には、財政法第7条に基づく財務省証券もある。これは、国庫の日々の資金繰りをまかなうための政府短期証券であり、当該年度の歳入で償還し利払費を除いて予算計上されない。 特別会計でも国債を発行する。国債の償還等の経理を行う国債整理基金特別会計では、毎年度多額の国債の満期が到来する。こうした国債のすべてを償還して終わる(現金償還)のではなく、多くはふたたび国債を発行して借り換える(借換(かりかえ)償還)。国の債務が増加するわけではないので、これを借換国債といい、通常は借換債とよんでいる。財政投融資に関する経理を行う財政投融資特別会計でも、国債を発行している。それが財政投融資特別会計国債であり、財投債とよばれる。財投債は、財政融資資金から政府関係機関や独立行政法人などの財投機関に貸し付ける原資となる。財投債の返済は原則として事業収益などであり、税を用いないことを前提としているため、建設国債、赤字国債、借換債といった普通国債とは峻別(しゅんべつ)される。 借換債と財投債は、特別会計法に基づき発行される。財政投融資特別会計では、財政融資資金法を根拠として、政府短期証券の一種である財政融資資金証券も発行している。また、東日本大震災復興特別会計においても、復興財源確保法に基づき復興債が発行されている。復興債は2011年度補正予算(第3号)に限り一般会計で発行されたが、翌2012年度から特別会計での発行に変わった。 このほかの政府短期証券として、外国為替(かわせ)資金特別会計の外国為替資金証券、食糧管理特別会計の食糧証券、エネルギー対策特別会計では石油証券と原子力損害賠償支援証券がある。これらの政府短期証券は、特別会計法を根拠とし、原則発行年度中の償還が必要であるが、現実には外国為替資金証券、食糧証券、石油証券において、年度越の残高が恒常的に存在する。 [浅羽隆史 2018年8月21日] 国債管理政策政府は、財源の確保のために国債を安定的に消化するとともに、将来の国民負担を減らすために低金利で調達しなければならない。そのために実施される諸施策を、国債管理政策とよぶ。 日本における国債管理政策の一つとして、毎年度の国債発行計画の策定がある。国債発行計画では、予算編成にあわせて、国債発行予定額、カレンダーベース市中発行額、政府保証債発行予定額などを公表している。計画作成にあたっては、「国債市場特別参加者会合」や「国の債務管理の在り方に関する懇談会」はじめ各種懇談会等を通じた市場との対話が重視されている。発行市場における安定した消化のため、2004年10月に国債市場特別参加者制度、いわゆる日本版プライマリー・ディーラー制度が導入されている。これは、一定の条件を満たす証券会社などに特別な資格を付与する一方、応札・落札責任を課すことで、国債の安定消化や流動性確保などを目的としている。そのほか、海外IR(海外向けインベスター・リレーションズ)の実施などによる国債保有者層の多様化が図られている。 起債に際しては、発行する場所を国内か国外か考えなければならない。国内で発行される国債を内国債(内債)、海外で発行される国債を外国債(外債)という。ただし、日本国政府による外国債の発行は、1968年度(昭和43)以降は行われていない。また、1988年度に最後の償還を終え、2018年度時点では残高においても外国債はなくなっている。 次に、消化方式の割り振りも重要である。消化方式は、市中発行、個人向け、公的部門に分けられる。市中発行とは、市中金融機関などに公募入札等で発行することをいう。市中発行には、財務省が提示した発行条件に対し入札参加者が落札希望価格(または利回り)と落札希望額を入札しそれに基づいて発行価格と発行額を決定する価格(利回り)競争入札、価格競争入札における加重平均価格を発行価格とする中小入札参加者向けの非競争入札、国債市場特別参加者にのみ参加資格が認められる第Ⅰ非価格競争入札および第Ⅱ非価格競争入札がある。 個人向けは、国債保有者層の多様化を図る一環として個人のみを対象に発行するもので、個人向け国債と一般の利付国債についての新型窓口販売方式があり、さまざまな金融機関で販売されている。公的部門とは、日本銀行が消化するものである。財政法が例外として認めている日本銀行保有国債の償還額の範囲内に限定して借換債を引き受けている。これを一般的には、乗換引受とよぶ。 [浅羽隆史 2018年8月21日] 市場における国債発行する会計や根拠法が異なっても、金融商品としては市場で区別なく取引されている。そのため国債市場では、金利や償還期間での区分が重要である。まず、金利等については、大きく利付国債と割引国債、そして割賦償還制国債に分けられる。 利付国債とは、利子を一定期間ごとに支払い、満期時には額面金額で償還する国債のことである。利子の支払いは、通常は半年ごとに行われる。一方、割引国債は、あらかじめ金利相当分を額面金額から割り引いた価格で発行し、途中での利払いは行わず、満期時に額面金額で償還される国債である。そして、無利子の割賦償還制国債は交付国債に限られる。 利付国債は、さらに固定利付国債、変動利付国債、物価連動国債に分けられる。固定利付国債は、利率そして利子の金額がすべての利払いにおいて同一の国債である。変動利付国債とは、市場の変動に応じて金利が変化する国債のことである。利率は利払いごとに改定される。物価連動国債は、元金額が消費者物価の動向に連動して増減する。たとえば、物価連動国債の発行後に消費者物価指数が上昇すれば、その上昇率に応じて元金額が増加する(増加後の元金額を想定元金額という)。償還額は、償還時点での想定元金額となる。利子の額は、各利払い時の想定元金額に表面利率を乗じて算出される。表面利率は発行時のもので固定されるため、物価上昇により想定元金額が増加すれば利子の額も増加する。 国債が発行されて償還されるまでの償還期間では、4区分が通常である。償還期間20~40年のものを超長期国債、10年を長期国債、2~5年を中期国債、そして2か月~1年のものを短期国債とよぶ。 [浅羽隆史 2018年8月21日] 日本の国債の歴史日本初の国債発行は、鉄道建設のため1870年(明治3)にロンドンで募集したポンド建て国債であった。金利は9%で償還期間13年、関税収入を担保に鉄道収益を付加的担保としていた。その後、旧藩の債務処理のための国債発行などを経て、日清戦争(1894~1895)、日露戦争(1904~1905)、日中戦争(1937~1945)といった戦費調達のための国債発行が目だつようになる。そして、第二次世界大戦(太平洋戦争。1941~1945)によって、経済規模を上回る残高を抱えることになり、戦後の激しいインフレーション(インフレ)の原因となった。 第二次世界大戦後に財政法が制定され、そのもとで初めて策定された1947年度の予算から1965年度当初予算まで、財政法第4条の国債不発行主義を遵守し、交付国債などを除き、財源調達のための国債は発行しなかった。ただしこの時期、地方公共団体では建設地方債はもとより、年度によっては赤字地方債も発行されていた。 財政法施行後初の国債発行は、1965年度補正予算であった。前年度の1964年度に東京オリンピックが開催され、高度経済成長期前半期のピークを迎えた。1965年度予算の策定では税収の伸びを高く設定していたが、景気は落ち込み、予算で見込んだ税収が不足した。そこで、補正予算で赤字国債を発行した。そして翌1966年度には、当初予算から建設国債を発行し国債発行政策に転換した。建設国債はそれ以降、発行が続けられている。 国債発行政策に転じたものの、1973年の第一次オイル・ショックまで高度経済成長が続いたことなどから、1974年度まで赤字国債は不発行であった。建設国債の発行額についても、抑制の効いたものであった。ふたたび赤字国債が発行されたのは1975年度補正予算で、その後の赤字国債の恒常的発行と同時に、国債全体の発行規模が急増し、大量発行時代に突入した。この背景には、高度経済成長の終焉(しゅうえん)により税収の伸びが縮小する一方、新全国総合開発計画(新全総)に基づく大規模事業実施や児童手当制度導入など歳出の拡大傾向があった。 こうした国債発行の膨張に対して財政再建が求められるようになり、赤字国債発行ゼロが目標に据えられた。そして、1980年代後半のバブル景気による税収増が、1991~1993年度(平成3~5)の赤字国債新規発行ゼロをもたらした。しかしそのときすでにバブルは崩壊しており、さらに国債発行が拡大した。それを加速させたのが、IT(情報技術)バブルがはじけ、アジア通貨危機(1997)に対する景気対策を打ち出した、1998年度補正予算であった。そこでは当初予算の2倍強の国債が計上され、歯止めなき国債発行とよばれるようになった。 いざなみ景気(2002~2008)と構造改革などにより、国債発行は2005年度から減少傾向に転じた。しかし、リーマン・ショックに端を発した世界同時不況により、2008年度からまたもや国債発行は増加に転じた。とくに景気対策に伴う2009年度補正予算では、歯止めなき国債発行の時期の水準を大きく上回り、一般会計の財源として国債は税をしのぐ規模になった。 その後、一般会計における国債発行は緩やかな減少傾向になったが、国際的にみて高水準の国債発行額と最高水準の国債発行残高を抱えている。2018年度当初予算では、一般会計の国債発行額は建設国債が6兆円、赤字国債が28兆円である。このほか、借換債103兆円、復興債1兆円、財投債12兆円となっている。そして、2018年度末見込みの国債発行残高は、建設国債273兆円、赤字国債604兆円(年金特例国債などを含む)、復興債6兆円、財投債94兆円となっている。 [浅羽隆史 2018年8月21日] その後の動き1990年代以降、バブル経済崩壊やリーマン・ショック後の経済対策、東日本大震災や新型コロナウイルス感染症(COVID(コビッド)-19)への対応、高齢化による社会保障費の増大などで、国の一般会計歳出は累増して100兆円を超える一方、一般会計税収は60兆円程度を上限に伸び悩み、両者の差は「ワニの口」とよばれるように年々拡大している。この差を埋めるため、日本は世界最高水準の国債発行残高を抱えている。2021年度(令和3)末見込みの国債発行残高は、建設国債285兆円、赤字国債700兆円(年金特例国債などを含む)、復興債0.8兆円、財投債140兆円。財政健全化のため、政府は国債に頼らずに歳出をまかなうプライマリーバランス(基礎的財政収支)の均衡を掲げているが、達成目標年次の先送りを繰り返している。 [矢野 武 2021年8月20日] 『真壁昭夫・玉木伸介・平山賢一著『国債と金利をめぐる300年史――英国・米国・日本の国債管理政策』(2005・東洋経済新報社)』▽『米澤潤一著『国債膨張の戦後史――1947―2013 現場からの証言』(2013・金融財政事情研究会)』▽『代田純著『日本国債の膨張と崩壊――日本の財政金融政策』(2017・文眞堂)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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