Family register - Koseki

Japanese: 戸籍 - こせき

A document created for the purpose of clarifying important status of individuals. Currently, the system is stipulated in the Family Registration Act (Act No. 224 of 1947). When the family registration system was established in the early Meiji period, it also had the purpose of police control, but later it became a system for the purpose of publicly announcing people's status. The Civil Code, Kinship and Family Parts, enacted in 1898 (Meiji 31), regulated people's status mainly through the so-called "family" system, which granted the "head of the household" the authority to control and lead the family members. The old Family Registration Act, enacted in the same year, was tasked with determining and publicizing the scope of this "family." In other words, the people listed in one family register constituted one "family." However, due to the occupation and other needs of each person, people listed in the same family register did not necessarily live together, and people were free to choose their "permanent domicile," so the family register and the "family" defined by it became extremely formal. Moreover, being included in this formal family register meant being included in a "family," and whether or not one lived in the same family had a major impact on whether or not one had parental authority, whether or not one had the right to give consent to the child's marriage, whether or not one had the obligation to support the child, and the order of inheritance, so a deep interest in family registers was born among the public. At the same time, this created a culture of manipulating family registers quite arbitrarily, such as by "adding" or "removing" someone from the family register.

After the Second World War, the new Family Registration Act was enacted in conjunction with the revision of the Civil Code. The revision of the Civil Code completely abolished the "family" system, and so the family register under the new Family Registration Act no longer has anything to do with "family" at all, but is merely a means of clarifying the status relationships of each person, mainly a married couple and their unmarried children. For convenience, people with the same "surname" are simply listed in the same family register, and there is no longer any difference in treatment under family law or inheritance law depending on whether they are in the same family register, as in the old law. Even if the family registers are different (and therefore the surnames are different), the parent-child and other kinship relationships are not different from when the family registers are the same. However, the concept of family registers from the old Civil Code still remains, and this, combined with the method in which people with the same surname are listed in the same family register, still attracts considerable public interest in family registers today. In addition, there is currently (2020) a debate about whether to allow a selective system of separate surnames for married couples, in which each spouse would retain their previous surname upon marriage (the issue of separate surnames for married couples). This issue is closely related, both technically and psychologically, to the nature of family registers.

In European countries, at first, people's social status was publicly announced by registering birth, marriage, death, and other events in books kept in Christian churches. In France, the state took this authority away from the church after the revolution and established a system of social status registration by event, just like the church's system. Other European countries also established systems based on the French social status registration system. However, under this system, birth, marriage, death, and other events were registered separately in the place where they occurred, so it was extremely difficult to grasp the changes in social status throughout a person's life in a unified manner. Therefore, each country tried to make this possible by adding a note to a person's birth certificate if there was a marriage, death, or other registration. However, this alone did not allow the identification of sibling or in-law relationships, so a "family handbook" was created in which a couple and their children were compiled in a single book and the social status of the couple was recorded in it. In Europe, starting from the registration of personal status by event, a system similar to the Japanese family register was eventually established.

[Yasuyuki Takahashi and Masamitsu Nozawa May 21, 2021]

Creation of family register and its entries

Each person's family register is created at the city, town, or village office of the person's registered domicile (Article 6 of the Family Register Act), and is stored in the order of the town name and address of the registered domicile as a "family register book" (Article 7 of the same act). One family register is created for each couple and their children who share the same surname, and no other people can be registered in the same family register (the principle of same surname and same register). The order in which people are registered in the same family register is as follows: for a couple who take the husband's surname, the husband is listed first, and for a couple who take the wife's surname, the wife is listed first, followed by the spouse, and then the children in order of their dates of birth (Article 14 of the same act). In each family register, in addition to the registered domicile and the name of the head of the family, each person's name and date of birth, the names of the biological parents and their relationship to them, the names of the adoptive parents and their relationship to them, etc. are entered in the appropriate columns (Article 13 of the same act), and further information on birth, death, adoption, divorce, marriage, divorce, and other changes in status are recorded.

[Yasuyuki Takahashi and Masamitsu Nozawa May 21, 2021]

Changes in family register

Current family registers are compiled for a married couple and their unmarried children. When a child marries, both spouses are removed from the existing family register and a new family register is compiled with the couple at the center (Family Register Act, Article 16). Also, even if a couple is not married, if they have a child, a new family register is compiled for the parent and child (Family Register Act, Article 17). Therefore, three generations cannot be listed on the same family register.

A child who takes the surname of either parent is entered into the family register of the parents, and a child who takes the surname of either the father or mother is entered into the family register of the father or mother, respectively (Article 18 of the same law). If a child has a different surname from either parent, the child may change his or her surname to the same as the father or mother with the permission of the family court, and once the surname has been changed, the child will be entered into the family register of the father or mother who has taken the same surname. Also, an adopted child will be entered into the family register of the adoptive parents. In the event of divorce, if a husband or wife who changed their surname at the time of marriage has a previous family register to which they should be re-registered, they will be re-registered in that one unless they specifically request the compilation of a new family register (Article 19 of the same law). Furthermore, adults are free to separate their family registers and have a new family register compiled.

[Yasuyuki Takahashi and Masamitsu Nozawa May 21, 2021]

Certification and extracts of family registers, etc.

Anyone may request a certified copy or extract of a family register by paying the prescribed fee. However, except in cases where the request is made by the person himself/herself, his/her spouse, lineal ascendants (parents, grandparents, etc.), lineal descendants (children, grandchildren, etc.), or by public servants, lawyers, and other persons in certain positions making a request in the course of their duties, the reason for the request must be clearly stated (Family Registration Act, Article 10-2).

[Yasuyuki Takahashi and Masamitsu Nozawa May 21, 2021]

Notification of family register

In principle, the creation of family registries and the entries in them are made based on notifications from each individual. Therefore, the Family Registration Act prescribes the person making the notification, the place of notification, the items to be recorded on the notification, the number of notifications, and the documents to be attached for each type of notification. Some notifications, such as birth notifications and death notifications, have a notification period, and if this type of notification is made after the notification period, a fine will be imposed.

Among the various notifications, birth notifications and death notifications are merely reports of facts that have already taken legal effect, but marriage notifications and divorce notifications (as well as adoption notifications, adoption dissolution notifications, and acknowledgment notifications) only take legal effect once they are submitted. Therefore, even if a couple gets married and lives together, they do not become a legal couple unless they submit a marriage notification; if they remain in a common-law marriage, and even if they are in fact separated, they are still legally a married couple unless they submit a divorce notification. However, if a divorce, dissolution, or acknowledgment is decided in court, it will take effect when the court decision becomes final, and the notification will be merely a report.

[Yasuyuki Takahashi and Masamitsu Nozawa May 21, 2021]

If there is an error in the family register

Even if an untrue report is made and recorded in the family register, the legal effect is determined by the true relationship. However, since the record in the family register has a certain degree of presumption, anyone who claims that the record is untrue must prove it. If one wishes to correct the family register, the concerned person can apply for correction of the family register after obtaining permission from the family court and have the record corrected (Family Register Act, Article 113 et seq.). However, as is often the case, in order to correct the record of major personal relationships, such as when one's own child is registered as someone else's child, it is necessary not only to obtain permission but also to apply for correction of the family register after going through a court case to confirm the non-existence of a parent-child relationship.

[Yasuyuki Takahashi and Masamitsu Nozawa May 21, 2021]

New trends regarding family registers

[1] Computerization of family registries Since the amendment of the Family Register Act in 1994, the computerization of family registries has been promoted in order to streamline and speed up family register administration. This involves recording family registries on magnetic disks or similar devices, and accumulating these to form a family register. When a certified copy or extract of a family register is requested, a document certifying all or part of the matters recorded in the family register stored on the magnetic disk shall serve as a substitute for the certified copy or extract of the family register. This amendment is intended to change the recording medium in response to the changing times, but does not change the basic policy for compiling family registries.

[2] Establishment of guardianship registration With the revision of the Civil Code in 1999, the previous system of incompetence and quasi-incompetence was abolished and replaced by the adult guardianship system. At the same time, the method of public notification, name entry in the family register, was abolished and the guardianship registration system was established (Law on Guardianship Registration, etc., Law No. 152 of 1999). This was done to take into consideration the public sentiment that the entry of incompetence and quasi-incompetence in the family register "tarnishes the family register." Only the person in question and those around him/her (guardian, spouse, relatives within the fourth degree of kinship, etc.) can request a "certificate of registration details" regarding guardianship registration (Article 10 of the Guardianship Registration Law). This is an example of privacy protection for status-related matters, and at the same time, it can be seen as an example of status registration by item.

[3] Building a new system by utilizing the Family Register Duplicate Data Management System Following the damage caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2013, the Family Register Duplicate Data Management System was introduced, and copies of family registers were managed by the Ministry of Justice. In contrast, the original family registers are managed by each city, ward, town, and village, but because they contain personal information, family register information has not yet been shared between local governments or pension offices. Therefore, a law amending part of the Family Register Act enacted on May 24, 2019 (Reiwa 1) has been enacted to network the Ministry of Justice's Family Register Duplicate Data Management System (scheduled to begin operation in 2024). Specifically, the following three points will be amended:

(1) Omission of the requirement to attach a copy of the family register in administrative procedures (participation in the My Number system)
Before the amendment, a certified copy of the family register was required to be attached to verify the status of the person in social security procedures, etc. After the amendment, the Minister of Justice will use the information recorded in the copy of the family register to create information identifying the existence of parent-child relationships and other status relationships as family register-related information, and store it in the new system (Family Register Act, Article 121-3). In addition to the traditional method of verifying family register information using a certified copy of the family register, it will also be possible to provide a means of verifying family register-related information through the information provision network system created for the My Number system.

(2) Omission of attachment of certified copies of family registers when filing family register notifications Before the amendment, when filing family register notifications in municipalities other than the person's permanent domicile, it was necessary to attach certified copies of family registers to confirm the status of the person. However, after the amendment, it will be possible to refer to data from municipalities other than the person's permanent domicile using the new system in municipalities other than the person's permanent domicile, and it will no longer be necessary to attach certified copies of family registers when filing family register notifications (Articles 118 and 120-4 to 8 of the same law).

(3) Issuance of certified copies of family registers outside the domicile Before the amendment, requests for certified copies of family registers were limited to the municipality of the domicile. After the amendment, requests for certified copies of family registers of oneself and one's parents, etc. can be made at municipal offices other than the municipality of the domicile (Article 120-2 of the same law).

[Yasuyuki Takahashi and Masamitsu Nozawa May 21, 2021]

History of family register

China

The political idea of controlling the people and land through household registration and making them the subject of taxation to strengthen the foundation of the nation was thought to have originated in the Zhou dynasty before Christ, based on related articles in the Analects and the Liturgy of Zhou. However, research on oracle bones and bronze inscriptions in the late 1970s revealed that the household registration system was established after the Zhou dynasty, as speculated. The household registration system of the Jin dynasty in the 3rd and 4th centuries, known as the Hukou Yellow Register, was made on a card measuring 1 shaku 2 sun (just over 30 centimeters) in length, and included the names of those who were subject to official duties. The invention and use of paper dates back to the Han dynasty, but the main writing materials in the Jin dynasty were still bamboo slips and cloth (bamboo, wooden, cloth, and silk), and it was not until the Eastern Jin dynasty and Sixteen Kingdoms period that paper began to be used in general use. The oldest surviving household register is from Dunhuang, Gansu Province, in 416 (the 12th year of the Jianchu era), a few years before the fall of the Jin dynasty, and was discovered by the Aurel Stein expedition. This household register begins with the notation for each household: "Gaochangli, Xidang Township, Dunhuang County, Dunhuang County, status, name of head of household, age," followed by a line listing each family member, with a breakdown of the number of men, women, and ranks (those assigned to duties) and a total below. China's household register system was most developed during the Tang dynasty, but its foundations were already established during the Sui dynasty. In the Tang dynasty household register system, three copies of the household register were made every three years for each township, and each was sent to the prefecture, prefecture, and central Cabinet Secretariat's Household Department for safekeeping. Most of the ancient Chinese registries remaining today are from the Tang dynasty, and they show that the format and content of household registries changed with the transformation of the Ritsuryo system. The household registries of this period consist of a household register and a land and residence register. The household register includes the names and ages of the head of the household and family, the relationship between the two, gender and age, whether they are wives, concubines, or widows, classification by health, status, differences in household births, deaths, and desertions, household rank, and whether they are taxed or not. The land and residence register lists the total amount of land to be provided to the household, a breakdown of what has been received and what has not, and for the received land, the classification and area of land, such as permanent work land, share land, and residential garden land. Household registries were created after the Tang dynasty, but a household register from the Song dynasty in Dunhuang shows that it was used as a standard for the collection of public taxes. During the Yuan dynasty, household registers were created for the purpose of public taxes, or "taxes," and during the Ming and Qing dynasties, a book similar to a household register, called the Fueki Kosatsu, was created for the purpose of taxation, and household registers were created that divided the people into civilians, military personnel, and artisans.

[Hirata Koji]

Japan

The earliest record of the implementation of the compilation of households and the creation of registries in Japan is the entry in the Nihon Shoki, which states that the Qin people who had migrated to Japan were compiled into a household register in August of the first year of the reign of Emperor Kinmei (540), and 7,053 households were established throughout the country. This is thought to have occurred in the first half of the 6th century. In the 30th year of the reign of Emperor Kinmei (569), Itsu, the nephew of Ojinni, was ordered by the Yamato court to create a registries for the fields of Shirai no Miyake in Kibi, so it is known that the method of controlling the people by creating registries was later implemented in territories directly controlled by the court with the cooperation of immigrants. This system of compilation of households and the creation of registries was established during the Taika Reforms in the mid-7th century as a means of regional organization (establishment of administrative villages) and political organization (establishment of fixed surnames) of the entire population, and was soon implemented in areas where it was feasible. Finally, in 670 (the 9th year of Emperor Tenchi's reign), the creation of a nationwide family register was completed, and this family register was named the "Kogo Nemjaku" (Year of the Horse) after the Chinese zodiac year of its creation, as a monument to the realization of control over all the people and the establishment of fixed surnames, and it was decided that it would be preserved forever as the fundamental ledger for correcting clan and surnames. During the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jito, the adoption of Chinese ritsuryo codes led to the development of a civil government system, and as a result, the family register needed to function not only as a means of determining surnames, but also as a tax ledger, and in 690 (the 4th year of Empress Jito's reign), a nationwide creation of a family register was carried out based on the Kiyomihara Code. Because this family register was meant to faithfully convey its contents to future family registers, there was no need to preserve it forever like the Kou-Horse year register; however, because it was a monument to the establishment of a system of people's rule under the Ritsuryo system, it was highly regarded and remembered by the people under the Ritsuryo system, and was named the "Koin year register" after the year of the Chinese zodiac.

The Taiho Code was enacted in 701 (the 1st year of the Taiho era), completing the Ritsuryo system of family registries, which stipulated that registrations were to be made once every six years, with three copies being made each year between early November of the year of registration and May 30 of the following year, two of which were to be submitted by the province's tribute envoy to the Daijokan by the deadline (October 30 for Kinkoku, November 30 for Chugoku, December 30 for Toukoku), and one was to remain in the province. One of the two copies submitted to the Daijokan was kept in the Ministry of Central Affairs and presented to the Emperor, and the other was sent to the Ministry of Civil Affairs, where it was kept and used for administrative purposes. Furthermore, family registries were kept for 30 years (a six-year cycle for creating a family registries is called 1 hi, but the Koryo stipulates that family registries should usually be kept for 5 hi), after which they were disposed of one by one and used on the backs of Ritsuryo administrative documents. There are 27 ancient family registries that remain, with 20 dating from the 8th century, two estimated to date to the 9th century, four from the 10th century, and one from the early 11th century.

The format and contents of the family registers differed from one period to the next, but they can be broadly divided into those before and after the implementation of the Taiho Code. Family registers based on the Kiyomihara Code before the Taiho Code include the Mino Province (Gifu Prefecture) family registers from 702, which begin with "fifth-class households, third-class households, official ranks, household head name, total number of households, household count by gender and slaves (nuhi) in two lines, and age classification (nenchitsu)," and then "ninth-class households, household head name, age and nenchitsu in two lines," followed by the family name, age, and relationship (tsuzukagara) of the family members in the order of male, female, slave, and slave, divided into three households per line. The number of households classified by tax and non-tax is recorded at the head of each household, as seen in later keicho, because the family registers under the Kiyomihara Code served as keicho. Among the family registers created by the Taiho Code are the various family registers of Saikaido from 702, which begin with the notation "Head of household, official rank, name, age, age order, taxable household (non-taxable household)" and then list each family member on one line along with their relationship to the household, age, and age order. At the end, the subtotals for taxable and non-taxable households and the amount of land received by each household are listed.

The Ritsuryo Family Registration Law was based on the principle of honkan (hometown), so in order to keep honkan fixed, it was not possible to increase the number of ri or the number of households (50), which led to a gradual increase in the population within a household and the complexity of blood relations. As the household registration gradually became detached from the actual situation of the peasants, the Ritsuryo government implemented the Gori system in 715 (Reiki 1) and partially revised the Family Registration Law. According to this, independent families that had arisen within a household were recognized as one household, the 50 households were officially named Goko, and households that were newly allowed to become independent within a Goko were officially recognized, and if a Boko had moved to another area, it was required to register with a neighboring Goko based on the newly enacted Dodan law. This made it possible to once again grasp the actual situation of the peasants and integrate the honkan system, just as it had been at the beginning of the implementation of the Sato system.

However, around this time, the focus of financial revenue began to gradually shift from forced labor to rice, and in 740 (Tenpyo 12), the government gave up directly controlling individual independent farmers through household registers, implemented the go system and abolished the gori system, once again organizing one ri (go) (village) with only 50 households, and made the head of the go household responsible for collecting tribute, thereby governing two to four branch households within the household (corresponding to the house households under the gori system).

After the Go system was implemented, farmers became more active in avoiding taxes, and family registries became false. The family registries system seemed to be recovering due to administrative reforms in the early Heian period, but from the middle of the 9th century, the land distribution system gradually disappeared, and farmers stopped removing deceased people from the register in order to secure their kubunden. They also passed off boys as girls to avoid taxes, and even when children were born, they did not register because they could not see when they would be allocated kubunden. As a result, family registries came to be dominated by elderly women. When the land distribution system was abolished at the beginning of the 10th century, the meaning of family registries was lost, and they began to play the role of account books, and their entry style became similar to that of account books. Although the contents were still strongly false, from the middle of the 10th century onwards, family registries changed to ones centered on kacho, and the boys' records became closer to the actual situation of farmers. However, due to the decline of the Ritsuryo system, they seem to have been almost never created by the beginning of the 11th century. Furthermore, surviving family registers from the Heian period include those from the 10th century Awa (Tokushima prefecture), Suo (Yamaguchi prefecture), and Sanuki (Kagawa prefecture).

The Kamakura and Muromachi periods are said to be times without family registers, but some feudal lords in the Sengoku period implemented ninbetsu aratame (personal registration) as a way to enrich the country and strengthen the military. In the Edo period, ninbetsu aratame was implemented in each domain, and ninbetsu cho (person and animal registration register, household registration register, number of people and horse registration register) were compiled, but after the Shimabara Rebellion in 1638 (Kan'ei 15), the sect registration system, which was established to suppress Christianity, was gradually established, and sect registration ninbetsu cho was created at the same time. The sect registration ninbetsu cho recorded the names and ages of the head of the household, family members, and servants, as well as the temples they belonged to, in order to grasp the labor force and to carry out sect registration, but at the same time it also had the purpose of preventing population movement from villages to towns, and played the role of the family register in feudal times.

At the end of the Edo period, the Hagi Domain established a family register system, which became the Yamashiro Province Family Register in 1868 (Meiji 1) and was inherited by the Meiji government. The Family Register Act of 1871 provided for the creation of regional family registers nationwide, dividing each region into districts and appointing a chief and deputy chief of household to each district to handle administrative duties. This was implemented the following February. This first family register (the Jinshin Family Register) is known as the first nationwide family register created by the Meiji government. Along with the family register, a family register table and a job classification table were created for each of several towns and villages, which served as a kind of national census. The 1871 system required the creation of family registers every six years, as per historical precedent, but this system was abolished in 1873. The Family Register Law was improved through the Home Ministry ordinances and instructions of 1886, and in 1898 (Meiji 31), the Family Register Law, whose main purpose was to record status relationships under family law and inheritance law, came into force together with the Civil Code as an auxiliary code. Although this Family Register Law also provided for a Western-style individual-based status register, the coexistence of the traditional Japanese family-based family register and the status register led to unnecessary duplication, so the system of status registers was abolished in the 1914 (Taisho 3) amendment.

[Hirata Koji]

"Kishi Toshio, 'Research on Ancient Japanese Registers' (1973, Hanawa Shobo)" ▽ "Ikeda Atsushi, 'Research on Ancient Chinese Registers' (1979, Institute for Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo)" ▽ "Sawada Shozo, 'Separate Surnames for Married Couples and the Family Register Problem' (1990, Gyosei)" ▽ "Ministry of Justice Civil Affairs Bureau Second Division Family Register Practical Research Group edited, 'Lifestyle Counseling Room Family Register Q&A - Answers to 100 Questions' (1990, Yuhikaku)" ▽ "Sakakibara Fujiko, 'Women and Family Registers - Towards an Era of Separate Surnames for Married Couples' (1992, Akashi Shoten)" ▽ "Okuda Yasuhiro, 'An Introduction to Nationality Law and Family Register Law for Citizens' (1997, Akashi Shoten)" ▽ "Systematic Family Register Terminology Dictionary - Laws, Relatives, Family Register Practice, Inheritance, Old Laws," revised edition (2001, Nihon Kajo Publishing), edited by Tashiro Aritsugu and written by Takatsuma Arata. "New Family Register Terminology Dictionary," edited by the Family Register Practice Study Group (2002, Roppo Publishing). "Family Register and Status Registration," new edition (2005, Waseda University Press), edited by the Comparative Family History Society and edited by Toshitani Nobuyoshi, Kamata Hiroshi, and Hiramatsu Akira. "Family Register and Status Registration," new edition (2005, Waseda University Press). "Various Family Register Notifications at a Glance," written by Takahashi Masaaki. New edition (2006, Nihon Kajo Publishing). "The Latest 123 Questions on Family Registers," edited by the Fukuoka Legal Affairs Bureau Family Register Practice Study Group (2011, Nihon Kajo Publishing). "If You Need to Know About Family Registers, This Is the Book for You," 4th edition (2017, Jiyukokuminsha), written by Ishihara Toyoaki, Kunibe Toru, and Iino Takara . "Outline of the Law Partially Amending the Family Registry Law, Civil Affairs Bureau, Ministry of Justice http://www.moj.go.jp/content/001295590.pdf"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

個人の重要な身分関係を明確にする目的でつくられる文書。現在は戸籍法（昭和22年法律第224号）にその制度が定められている。明治初年に戸籍制度ができたときは警察的取締りの目的もあったが、その後は人の身分関係を公示することを目的とする制度になった。1898年（明治31）に施行された民法親族編・相続編は、「戸主」に家族構成員を支配統率する権限を認めた、いわゆる「家」の制度を中心に人の身分関係を規律した。同年制定された旧戸籍法は、この「家」の範囲を確定して公示する役割を負わされた。すなわち、一つの戸籍に記載された者が一つの「家」を構成することとされたのである。ところが、各人の職業その他の必要から、同じ戸籍に記載された者がかならずしも共同生活を営むわけではなく、また「本籍」を自由に選定できたので、戸籍とそれによって定まる「家」はきわめて形式化していった。しかも、この形式的な戸籍に入ることが「家」に入ることであり、同じ家にいるかどうかが、親権の有無、子の婚姻に対する親の同意権の有無、扶養義務の有無、相続の順位などに大きな関係をもったので、国民の間に戸籍に対する深い関心が生まれた。また、それと同時に「戸籍に入れる」「戸籍を抜く」など、かなり恣意(しい)的に戸籍を操作する気風を生じた。

　第二次世界大戦後、民法改正に伴い、新戸籍法が制定された。民法改正によって「家」の制度は完全に廃止されたので、新戸籍法による戸籍はもはや「家」とはまったく関係なく、夫婦とその未婚の子を中心として、各人の身分関係を明らかにするものにすぎなくなった。便宜的に「氏(うじ)」の同じ者を同じ戸籍に記載しているだけであって、旧法のように同じ戸籍にいるかどうかによって、親族法・相続法上異なった取扱いを受けることはまったくなくなった。戸籍が別であっても（したがって氏が別であっても）、親子その他の親族関係が、戸籍が同じ場合と異なるわけではない。しかし、民法旧規定以来の戸籍に対する観念がまだ残っており、それが、同じ氏を称する者が同じ戸籍に記載されるという方法がとられていることと相まって、現在でもなお戸籍に対する国民の関心をかなりひきつけている。また、婚姻に際して、夫婦がそれぞれ従来の氏をもち続けるいわゆる夫婦別姓制度を選択的に認めるかどうか、現在（2020年）論議されている（夫婦別姓問題）が、この問題は、技術的・心理的に戸籍のあり方と密接に関連している。

　ヨーロッパ諸国では、最初はキリスト教会に備え付けられた帳簿に、出生・婚姻・死亡などの事項別に登録することによって人の身分関係を公示していた。フランスは革命によって、国家がこの権限を教会から奪って、これを整備したが、その方法は教会のとってきたものと同じく、事項別の身分登録であった。ほかのヨーロッパ諸国も、だいたいこのフランスの身分登録制に倣って制度を設けた。しかし、この制度によると、出生・婚姻・死亡などをその生じた土地で別々に登録するので、人の一生を通じての身分変動を統一的に把握するのがきわめて困難であった。そこで各国ともその後、婚姻・死亡その他の登録があれば、その旨をその人の出生証書に付記するなどの方法によってこれを可能にするよう努力してきた。しかしそれだけでは、まだ兄弟関係や姻族関係などがわからないので、夫婦とその間の子とを一冊にまとめて、これにそれらの者の身分関係を記載した「家族手帳」というものが創設されるようになった。ヨーロッパでは、このように個人の事項別の身分登録から出発して、結局日本の戸籍に類似した制度に到達したわけである。

［高橋康之・野澤正充　2021年5月21日］

戸籍の作成およびその記載

各人の戸籍は、その本籍地の市区町村役場で作成され（戸籍法6条）、本籍の町名番地順につづられ「戸籍簿」として保管される（同法7条）。各戸籍は、一つの夫婦およびこれと氏を同じくする子ごとに一つの戸籍がつくられ、それ以外の者が同籍することはない（同氏同籍の原則）。同籍者の記載順序は、夫の氏を称する夫婦は夫を、妻の氏を称する夫婦は妻を筆頭に記載し、その次にその配偶者、さらに生年月日順に子が記載される（同法14条）。そしてそれぞれの戸籍では、本籍および筆頭者の氏名のほか、各人の氏名・生年月日、実父母の氏名およびそれとの続柄(つづきがら)、養父母の氏名およびその続柄などがそれぞれ所定欄に記入され（同法13条）、さらに出生、死亡、養子縁組、離縁、婚姻、離婚、その他の身分関係の変動に関する事項が記載される。

［高橋康之・野澤正充　2021年5月21日］

戸籍の変動

現在の戸籍は夫婦とその未婚の子をもって編製されている。子が婚姻すると、その夫婦はいずれも従来の戸籍からは除かれ、新たに夫婦中心の戸籍が編製される（戸籍法16条）。また、婚姻していなくても、子をもった場合には、その親子のために新しい戸籍が編製される（同法17条）。したがって、3世代が同一の戸籍に記載されることはない。

　父母の氏を称する子は父母の戸籍に、父または母の氏を称する子はそれぞれ父または母の戸籍に入る（同法18条）。子が父母のどちらかと氏を異にする場合には、子は家庭裁判所の許可を得て、氏を父または母と同じものに変えることができるが、そのようにして氏が変われば、同じ氏となった父または母の戸籍に入る。また、養子は養親の戸籍に入る。離婚の場合には、婚姻の際、氏を改めた夫または妻が、復籍すべき従前の戸籍があるときは、とくに新戸籍編製の申出をしない限り、それに復籍する（同法19条）。さらに成年者は自由に分籍して新戸籍を編製してもらうことができる。

［高橋康之・野澤正充　2021年5月21日］

戸籍の謄・抄本など

戸籍簿は、だれでも所定の手数料を納めれば、戸籍謄本・戸籍抄本の交付を請求することができる。ただし、本人またはその配偶者、直系尊属（父母、祖父母など）、直系卑属（子、孫など）が請求する場合、もしくは公務員、弁護士など、一定の職にある者が職務上請求する場合を除いては、請求の事由を明らかにしなければならない（戸籍法10条の2）。

［高橋康之・野澤正充　2021年5月21日］

戸籍の届出

前記のような戸籍の作成やそれへの記載は各人からの届出に基づいてするのが原則である。そのため、戸籍法は各種の届出につき、届出人、届出地、届書の記載事項、届書の通数、添付書類などをそれぞれ定めている。なお出生届や死亡届のように届出期間を定めているものがあり、この種の届出は届出期間を過ぎてしまうと過料に処せられる。

　各種の届出のうち出生届や死亡届は、すでに法律的な効果を生じている事実を報告するだけのものであるが、婚姻届や離婚届（養子縁組届・養子離縁届・認知届も同様である）は、届け出ることによって初めて法律的な効果を生ずるものである。だから、挙式して同棲(どうせい)しても婚姻届を出さなければ法律上の夫婦とはならず、単に内縁関係にとどまり、また事実上別れていても離婚届を出さなければ法律上は依然夫婦である。ただし、離婚・離縁・認知などが裁判で決まった場合には、その裁判の確定によってその効果が生じ、届出は報告的なものとなる。

［高橋康之・野澤正充　2021年5月21日］

戸籍の記載に誤りがある場合

真実にあわない届出がなされて戸籍に記載されていても、法的効果は真実の関係によって定まる。しかし戸籍の記載はいちおうの推定力をもつから、真実に反すると主張する者はそのことを証明しなければならない。戸籍を訂正したいと思う場合には、関係者は家庭裁判所の許可を得たうえで戸籍訂正申請をし、その記載を訂正してもらうことができる（戸籍法113条以下）。ただし、往々みられるように、自分の子を他人の子として届け出た場合のように主要な身分関係の記載を訂正するには、単に許可を得るだけでなく、親子(しんし)関係不存在確認などの裁判を受けて戸籍訂正申請をすることが必要である。

［高橋康之・野澤正充　2021年5月21日］

戸籍に関する新しい動き

〔1〕戸籍のコンピュータ化
　戸籍事務の適正化と迅速化を図る目的で、1994年（平成6）の戸籍法改正以来、戸籍のコンピュータ化が進められた。これは、戸籍を磁気ディスクまたはこれに類するものに記録し、それを蓄積したものをもって戸籍簿とするものである。戸籍謄本または戸籍抄本の請求があった場合には、磁気ディスクに収められた戸籍に記載された事項の全部または一部を証明した書面をもって戸籍の謄本または抄本にかわるものとする。この改正は、時代の流れに即応して記録の媒体を変更しようとするものであって、戸籍の編製の基本方針に変更はない。

〔2〕後見登記の発足
　1999年（平成11）民法改正によって、従来の禁治産・準禁治産の制度は廃止され、成年後見制度がこれにかわった。それと同時に、公示方法としての戸籍への記載は廃止され、後見登記の制度が新設された（後見登記等に関する法律、平成11年法律第152号）。禁治産・準禁治産の戸籍への記載を「戸籍が汚れる」といって嫌う国民感情に配慮したものである。後見登記に関する「登記事項証明書」は、本人とその周辺の人たち（後見人、配偶者、4親等内の親族など）しか請求できない（後見登記法10条）。身分に関する事項のプライバシー保護の例であると同時に、事項別の身分登録の一例とみることもできる。

〔3〕戸籍副本データ管理システムの活用による新システムの構築
　2013年（平成25）に東日本大震災での被災を契機に、戸籍副本データ管理システムが導入され、法務省において戸籍の副本を管理することとなった。これに対して、戸籍の原本は、各市区町村がそれぞれ管理しているものの、個人情報を含むため、まだ自治体間や年金事務所などとの間で戸籍情報の共有ができていない。そこで、2019年（令和1）5月24日成立の戸籍法の一部を改正する法律によって、法務省の戸籍副本データ管理システムをネットワーク化することとした（2024年運用開始予定）。具体的には、以下の3点が改正される。

(1)行政手続における戸籍謄抄本の添付省略（マイナンバー制度への参加）
　改正前は、社会保障手続等において、身分関係の確認のために戸籍謄抄本の添付が必要であった。これに対して、改正後は、法務大臣が戸籍の副本に記録されている情報を利用して、親子関係その他の身分関係の存否を識別する情報等を戸籍関係情報として作成し、新システムに蓄積する（戸籍法121条の3）。そして、従来の戸籍謄抄本による戸籍の情報の証明手段に加え、マイナンバー制度のためにつくられた情報提供ネットワークシステムを通じて戸籍関係情報を確認する手段も提供可能にする。

(2)戸籍の届出における戸籍謄抄本の添付省略
　改正前は、本籍地以外の各市区町村で戸籍の届出をする際に、身分関係の確認のために戸籍謄抄本の添付が必要とされていた。これに対して、改正後は、本籍地以外の市区町村において、新システムを利用して本籍地以外の市区町村のデータを参照できるようにし、戸籍の届出における戸籍謄抄本の添付を不要とする（同法118条、120条の4～8）。

(3)本籍地以外での戸籍謄抄本の発行
　改正前は、戸籍謄抄本の請求は、本籍地市区町村に限られた。改正後は、自らや父母等の戸籍について、本籍地の市区町村以外の市区町村の窓口でも、戸籍謄抄本の請求を可能とする（同法120条の2）。

［高橋康之・野澤正充　2021年5月21日］

戸籍の沿革

中国

人民と土地を戸籍によって掌握し、租税賦課の対象とすることによって国家の基礎を固めるという政治理念は、『論語』や『周礼(しゅらい)』の関係記事によって、古く紀元前の周代にその源流があると考えられていたが、1970年代後半の甲骨文や金文の研究によって、その推測どおり周代以降に戸籍制度が整備されていったことが明らかにされた。3～4世紀の晋(しん)代の戸籍＝「戸口黄籍(ここうこうせき)」は長さ1尺2寸（30センチメートル強）の札が用いられ、官役の対象となる者の姓名が記されている。紙の発明と利用は漢代にまでさかのぼるが、晋代の書写材料の主流は依然として簡牘布帛(かんどくふはく)（竹札・木札・布・絹）であり、東晋・十六国時代になってやっと紙が一般に用いられるようになった。現存最古の戸籍は、晋が滅ぶ数年前の416年（建初12）の甘粛(かんしゅく／カンスー)省敦煌(とんこう)のもので、オーレル・スタイン探検隊によって発見されたものである。この戸籍は戸ごとに「敦煌郡敦煌県西宕郷高昌里・身分・戸主名・年齢」の表記で書き出し、以下家族を1人1行で列挙し、下方に男、女、丁(てい)（課役をあてられる者）、中別の人数内訳と合計を記すという書式によって作成されている。中国の戸籍制度は唐代にもっとも整備されたが、その基本はすでに隋(ずい)代に定まっていたといってよい。唐の戸籍制度では、戸籍は1郷ごとに1巻として3年ごとに3通ずつつくられ、それぞれ県と州と中央の尚書省戸部に送られて保管された。今日残っている中国の古代籍帳の大部分はこの唐代のものであるが、これによると、律令制度の変質に伴って戸籍の記載様式や内容も変化していったことが知られる。この時代の戸籍は戸口の籍と田宅の籍からなっており、戸口の籍では戸主と家族の姓名年齢、両者の続柄、男女および年齢による区分、妻・妾(しょう)・寡(か)の別、健康の度合いによる区分、身分、戸口の出生・死亡・逃亡などの異同、戸の等級と課戸・不課戸の別などが注記されている。田宅の籍では戸口に給すべき田地の総額、その已受(いじゅ)と未受の内訳、已受田については永業田(えいぎょうでん)・口分田(くぶんでん)・居住園宅などの別とその面積をあげている。戸籍は唐代以後もつくられたが、敦煌の宋(そう)代の戸籍によると、公課徴収の基準とされていたことがわかる。元(げん)代にも公課＝「丁税(ていぜい)」のために戸籍がつくられ、明(みん)・清(しん)時代にも課税のために賦役黄冊(ふえきこうさつ)という戸籍に似た帳簿がつくられたり、人民を民・軍・匠(しょう)に区分した戸籍がつくられた。

［平田耿二］

日本

日本における編戸・造籍の実施は、わが国に渡来した秦人(はたひと)を欽明(きんめい)天皇元年（540）8月に戸籍に編貫して7053戸を全国に安置したとする『日本書紀』の記事がもっとも早い例で、6世紀前半ごろのことと考えられる。欽明天皇30年（569）には王辰爾(おうじんに)の甥(おい)である胆津(いつ)が大和(やまと)朝廷の命によって吉備(きび)の白猪屯倉(しらいのみやけ)の田部の丁籍をつくっているから、造籍による人民支配の方式は、その後、渡来人の協力のもとに朝廷の直轄領において実施されたことが知られる。この編戸・造籍の制は、7世紀なかばの大化改新の際に全人民の地域的編成（行政村落の設置）と政治的編成（定姓）の手段として制定され、まもなく実行可能な地域から施行が開始された。そして、670年（天智天皇9）についに全国的な規模での造籍が完成し、この戸籍は全人民の掌握と定姓が実現した記念塔として、作製年の干支年をとって「庚午年籍(こうごねんじゃく)」と名づけられ、その後、氏姓を正すための根本台帳として永久保存される定めとなった。天武(てんむ)・持統(じとう)朝になって中国律令の継受による民政制度の整備が推進されたために、戸籍は定姓の機能と同時に課税の原簿の機能も果たす必要が生じ、690年（持統天皇4）に浄御原令(きよみはらりょう)に基づいた全国的な造籍が実施された。この戸籍は以後の戸籍にその内容を忠実に伝えていくものであったから、庚午年籍のように永久保存する必要はなかったが、律令による人民支配体制成立の記念塔であったため、令制下ではその干支年をとって「庚寅(こういん)年籍」と称して高く評価され、人々に記憶された。

　701年（大宝1）に大宝令(たいほうりょう)が制定されて令制の戸籍制度は完成したが、それによると、造籍は6年に一度行われ、籍年の11月上旬より翌年の5月30日までに各3通をつくり、うち2通をその国の貢調使が期日（近国10月30日・中国11月30日、遠国(おんごく)12月30日）までに太政官(だいじょうかん)に提出し、1通は国にとどめる定めであった。太政官に提出された2通のうちの1通は中務(なかつかさ)省に保管されて天皇に供覧し、1通は民部省に送られて保管され施政の便に供された。なお戸籍は30年間（戸籍の作成周期6年を1比(ひ)とよぶが、戸令(こりょう)では通常の戸籍の保存期間を5比と制定）保存したあと順次廃棄処分され、律令行政文書などの紙背に利用された。現存する古代戸籍は27通で、内訳は8世紀のもの20通、9世紀と推定されるもの2通、10世紀のもの4通、11世紀初頭のもの1通である。

　戸籍の記載様式・内容については、各時期それぞれ異なっているが、大きく分けると大宝令施行以前と以後とに分けて大過ないであろう。大宝令以前の浄御原令に基づいた戸籍としては、702年の美濃(みの)国（岐阜県）の諸戸籍があり、その記載様式は、戸ごとに「五保・三等戸・官勲位・戸主名・戸口総数・二行割書きによる戸口の男女奴婢(ぬひ)別と年齢区分（年秩(ねんちつ)）による戸口集計」で書き出し、「九等戸・戸主名・二行割書きによる年齢と年秩」に続けて、1行3口の割で家族の姓名・年齢と続柄(つづきがら)を男・女・奴・婢の順に記載している。各戸の首部に後の計帳にみられるような課・不課別の口数を記載しているのは、浄御原令制下の戸籍が計帳の役割を果たしていたためである。大宝令によってつくられた戸籍としては、702年の西海道(さいかいどう)の諸戸籍があり、「戸主・官勲位・姓名・年齢・年秩・課戸（不課戸）」の表記で書き出し、以下1行1口の割で家族を続柄・年齢・年秩を付して列記し、末尾に課口・不課口別の小計とその戸の受田額を載せている。

　律令の戸籍法は本貫(ほんがん)（本籍）主義であったため、本貫を固定しておくために里数も、50という戸数も増やすことができず、そのため戸内人口の漸増と血縁関係の複雑化を招いた。こうして戸籍が農民の実態からしだいに遊離してきたため、律令政府は715年（霊亀1）郷里制を施行して戸籍法を一部改定した。これによると、戸内に派生した独立家族を一戸として認定し、これまでの50の戸を郷戸(ごうこ)、郷戸内部で新たに独立を許された戸を房戸(ぼうこ)と名づけて公認し、もし房戸が他の地域に転居していた場合は、新たに制定された土断(どだん)法に基づいて、近隣の郷戸に入籍することとした。これによって里制施行当初と同様に、ふたたび農民の実態掌握と本貫主義の融合が可能となった。

　しかし、このころから財政収入の重点が徭役(ようえき)労働からしだいに稲に移り始めたこともあって、740年（天平12）に戸籍によって個々の独立農民を直接掌握することを断念し、郷制を施行して郷里制を廃止し、ふたたび1里（郷）を50戸の郷戸だけで編成することとし、本家である郷戸主を貢租徴税の責任者とすることによって、戸内の2～4の分家（郷里制下の房戸にあたる）を統轄させた。

　郷制施行以後、農民の課役忌避の動きはさらに活発となり、戸籍は偽籍化した。平安初期の行政改革によって戸籍制度も一度立ち直るかにみえたが、9世紀の中ごろから班田収授制がしだいに行われなくなると、農民は口分田を確保するために死亡者を除籍しなくなり、また課役忌避のため男子を女子と偽ったり、子供が生まれても口分田を班給される目途がたたないために入籍しなくなるなど、戸籍はほとんど高齢の女子によって占められるようになった。10世紀の初めに班田制が廃絶すると戸籍の意義が失われたため、戸籍は計帳の役割を果たすようになり、記載様式も計帳に近くなった。内容は相変らず偽籍性の強いものであったが、10世紀中ごろ以降は課丁を中心とする戸籍に変わっていき、男子はむしろ農民の実態に近いものとなったが、律令制の衰退により、11世紀に入るとほとんどつくられなくなったようである。なお、平安時代の戸籍としては、10世紀の阿波(あわ)（徳島県）、周防(すおう)（山口県）、讃岐(さぬき)（香川県）などのものが現存している。

　鎌倉・室町時代は無戸籍の時代といわれているが、戦国大名のなかには富国強兵策の一つとして人別改(にんべつあらため)を行ったものもある。人別改は江戸時代になって各藩で実施され、人別帳（人畜改帳、家数人馬書上帳）がつくられるようになったが、1638年（寛永15）の島原の乱後、キリシタン禁圧のために設けられた宗門改制度がしだいに整備されてくると、これとあわせて宗門人別帳がつくられるようになった。宗門人別帳には、労働力の把握と宗門改のために戸主・家族・奉公人の名と年齢および所属寺院などが書かれたが、同時に村方から町方への人口移動を防止する目的をもち、封建時代の戸籍の役割を果たした。

　幕末、萩(はぎ)藩では戸籍の制を設けたが、この制度が1868年（明治1）の山城(やましろ)国戸籍となり明治政府に受け継がれた。1871年の戸籍法は全国的に地域別の戸籍をつくることとし、そのために各地方を区に分かち、それぞれに正副戸長を置いて事務をとらせることにして、翌年2月実施された。この第1回につくられた戸籍（壬申(じんしん)戸籍）は、明治政府が作成した最初の全国的な戸籍として知られている。戸籍とともに戸籍表と職分表とが数か町村ごとにつくられたが、これは一種の国勢調査であった。1871年の制では古例により6年ごとに戸籍を作成することになっていたが、1873年にこの制は廃止された。1886年の内務省令および訓令によって戸籍法の充実が図られたが、1898年（明治31）には、民法とともにその付属法典として親族法上・相続法上の身分関係の記載を主目的とする戸籍法が施行されるに至った。もっとも、この戸籍法では西洋流の個人本位の身分登記簿についても定めたが、日本古来の家本位の戸籍簿と身分登記簿との併存は不必要な重複をもたらしたため、1914年（大正3）の改正で身分登記簿の制は廃止された。

［平田耿二］

『岸俊男著『日本古代籍帳の研究』（1973・塙書房）』▽『池田温著『中国古代籍帳研究』（1979・東京大学東洋文化研究所）』▽『沢田省三著『夫婦別氏論と戸籍問題』（1990・ぎょうせい）』▽『法務省民事局第二課戸籍実務研究会編著『くらしの相談室　戸籍Q＆A――100の問に答える』（1990・有斐閣）』▽『榊原富士子著『女性と戸籍――夫婦別姓時代に向けて』（1992・明石書店）』▽『奥田安弘著『市民のための国籍法・戸籍法入門』（1997・明石書店）』▽『田代有嗣監修、高妻新著『体系・戸籍用語事典――法令・親族・戸籍実務・相続・旧法』改訂版（2001・日本加除出版）』▽『戸籍実務研究会編『新戸籍用語事典』（2002・六法出版社）』▽『比較家族史学会監修、利谷信義・鎌田浩・平松絋編『戸籍と身分登録』新装版（2005・早稲田大学出版部）』▽『高橋昌昭著『一目でわかる戸籍の各種届出』新版（2006・日本加除出版）』▽『福岡法務局戸籍実務研究会編『最新　戸籍の知識123問』（2011・日本加除出版）』▽『石原豊昭・國部徹・飯野たから著『戸籍のことならこの1冊』第4版（2017・自由国民社）』▽『法務省民事局・戸籍法の一部を改正する法律の概要　http://www.moj.go.jp/content/001295590.pdf』

[参照項目] | 家 | 氏 | 家族制度 | 偽籍 | 計帳 | 後見登記 | 庚午年籍 | 戸主 | 戸籍謄本 | 戸長 | 婚姻 | 死亡 | 出生 | 親子関係不存在確認 | 壬申戸籍 | 入籍 | 認知 | 夫婦別姓 | 賦役黄冊 | 復籍 | 分籍 | 本貫 | 養子 | 離縁 | 離婚

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