Qing - Shin

Japanese: 清 - しん

The Manchu dynasty (1616-1912) arose in northeastern China (Manchuria) and ruled China after the Ming Dynasty. It was the last dynasty in Chinese history, and its final period marked the beginning of modern Chinese history.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

Historical Overview

Until national unification

The Manchus were a Tungusic people who lived a life of half hunting, half herding and half farming, and were called Jurchen or Jurchen. After the fall of the Jin dynasty (1234), they submitted to the Yuan and Ming dynasties, but under the Ming dynasty they were divided into three parts, Haixi, Jianzhou and Yajin, and the Weisho system was established. Haixi and Jianzhou gradually improved their culture and economic life by using oxen and Han Chinese labor. In the 17th century, Nurhaci of Jianzhou Jurchen took the opportunity of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, which loosened the Ming's control, to unify the various Jurchen tribes, and in 1616 he became the Han (the founder of the Qing dynasty) and named his country Jin (Later Jin). The Ming sent a large army, but was defeated in the Battle of Sarhu in 19. Nurhaci advanced into the Liaodong Plain and moved the capital to Shenyang (Fengtian Prefecture). When Nurhaci died in 26, his son Hong Taizhong (Taizong) took the throne, defeated the Chahar tribe in Inner Mongolia, and obtained the "Seal of the Great Yuan Dynasty." In 36, he became emperor again and named the country Qing. In the same year, he completely subjugated Korea and became its suzerain. At that time, popular movements such as civil uprisings in cities and anti-tax protests in rural areas were intensifying in China, and party strife within the imperial court was still lingering, and the Ming's rule was faltering. Many scholar-officials surrendered from the Ming to the Qing, and a Chinese-style administrative organization was established. In 1643, Emperor Taizong died, and his son, Emperor Shunzhi, ascended to the throne at a young age. Prince Rui Dorgon became regent, and the following year, when Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng, Prince Rui negotiated with Wu Sangui, the garrison commander of Shanhai Pass, and crossed Shanhai Pass to enter northern China (Qing's entry into the pass) to assist Wu Sangui and avenge the Ming Emperor. The Qing's large army recovered Beijing, pursued Li Zicheng, and conquered the entire northern China region. The Qing moved its capital to Beijing, and became the Chinese dynasty that succeeded the Ming. Resistance to foreign rule began in the Southern Ming Dynasty, led by Ming royal family members and surviving retainers such as King Fu, King Tang, and King Gui, but they were unable to regain their footing. On the other hand, the obstacles to the unification of the Qing were the anti-Qing sentiment of the Jiangnan scholar-officials who were descended from the three great thinkers of the early Qing, Gu Yanwu, Huang Zongxi, and Wang Shuanshan, and the growing power of the so-called Three Feudal Domains, Wu Sangui (King of Pingxi, Yunnan), Shang Kexi (King of Pingnan, Fujian), and Geng Zhongming (King of Jingnan, Canton), who were instrumental in pacifying the Qing. In 1645, when they captured Nanjing, they forced the Jurchens to wear their hair in a pigtail, a custom that was a way of forcing the proud Jiangnan people of China to submit to the Qing. They also seized the opportunity to suppress anti-Qing and anti-Manchu sentiment by setting up penalties such as the Sōshōan (punishing those who did not pay taxes), and implemented prisons of letters and banning books. As for the Three Feudal Domains, Emperor Kangxi, who ascended to the throne at the age of eight after the sudden death of Emperor Shunzhi, came of age and began to rule on his own, and in 1673 he initiated a policy to abolish the Three Feudal Domains, triggering a meeting to abolish the feudal domains. This led to the rebellion of the Three Feudal Domains, which at one point led to the loss of six southern provinces, but was successfully suppressed in 81. Then, in 83, the descendants of Zheng Chenggong, the last remaining Ming vassal who was based in Taiwan, also surrendered, completing the unification of the Qing dynasty.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

heyday

The Qing was at its height of its power for about 130 years, from the Kangxi Emperor through the Yongzheng Emperor to the middle of the Qianlong Emperor's reign, during which its territory expanded. In 1689, the Kangxi Emperor concluded the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia, which had been moving eastward and southward, and drove the Russians out of the Heilongjiang River basin. Next, under the Yongzheng and Qianlong Emperors, they invaded the Dzungars, who had dominated the Mongolian Plateau, adding Qinghai to their territory, making Tibet a protectorate, and establishing the Junbu and Huibu (later Xinjiang Province) in the former Dzungar territories. During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, they further extended their influence to Kokand and Bukhara in Western Turkestan, and Afghanistan, and sent expeditionary forces from Burma (present-day Myanmar), Vietnam, and even the Gurkhas in Nepal, making these countries tributary states of the Qing.

All three emperors, Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong, were capable autocrats who respected Chinese culture and traditions, favored Han Chinese bureaucrats, and implemented measures to reduce and exempt taxes, control the Yellow River, and enforce discipline among officials, winning over the people and contributing to social stability. However, in the last years of Qianlong's reign, corruption among officials became so severe that the government became chaotic, with powerful ministers such as Hesheng taking bribes. Furthermore, with the population exceeding 300 million, the surplus population became refugees and vagabonds in the cities, or people who relied on secret societies and religious organizations. In addition, the number of people who infiltrated ethnic minority areas or went overseas to become overseas Chinese also increased. Life for the ruling Manchu people also became difficult. Social contradictions increased, and rebellions broke out in the provinces. At the end of the Qianlong period, various rebellions by Muslims (Hui people) and Miao peoples occurred in the border areas of Sichuan and Yunnan. Around the time that Emperor Qianlong abdicated to Emperor Jiaqing (1795), this turned into a major White Lotus Rebellion that swept through Hubei and five other provinces for ten years. The Eight Banners, the official military, were powerless, so they relied on the military forces of private landlords (town heroes). However, the world continued to be in turmoil, with pirates from southern China and the Tenrikyo rebellion in Beijing.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

Invasion by the Great Powers

Britain, which had already entered the stage of the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century, attempted to expand its market by sending Macartney under Emperor Qianlong, Amherst under Emperor Jiaqing, and Napier under Emperor Daoguang to negotiate, but was unsuccessful. In 1840, the opium issue sparked a war (the Opium Wars). Lin Zexu and others from Guangzhou performed admirably, but the imperial court, fearing a protracted war, made peace with Britain and concluded the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. Under this treaty, Hong Kong Island was ceded and Shanghai and five other ports were opened to foreign trade. The following year, the Treaty of Humenzhai was concluded, an unequal treaty that allowed the establishment of settlements (concessions) in open ports and consular jurisdiction. In 1844, the United States (Wangxia Treaty) and France (Huangpu Treaty) also concluded similar treaties with Britain. From then on, the Qing dynasty strengthened its role as a medium for the great powers to invade China. Moreover, the Qing dynasty, supported by the Chinese people's sense of Chineseness and the fact that China was vast and rich (the land was rich in goods), was not amenable to free trade and international law, and repeatedly waged war. The Qing dynasty was defeated in wars such as the Arrow War in 1856, the Sino-French War in 1884, and the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, and paid huge indemnities. As a result, a large amount of silver was lost, people suffered from rising prices, and as the great powers expanded their interests in China, more and more people were forced to change their traditional lifestyles. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, which Hong Xiuquan aimed to overthrow the Qing dynasty and build a paradise on earth, was also forced to confront foreign powers, along with reforming feudal relations such as the landlord system, which was inevitable in modern Chinese history. Landlords and wealthy merchants who realized the powerlessness of the Qing army were surprised by the development of the situation and organized self-defense forces in their hometowns. Among them, Zeng Guofan's Xiangyong and Li Hongzhang's Huaiyong became the central figures.

After the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion, bureaucrats of Han Chinese origin, such as Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, and Zuo Zongtang, occupied key government positions, adopted Western technology, and worked to enrich the country, strengthen its military, and promote industry. This was called the Westernization Movement, but as it was an attempt to adopt Western science and technology without changing China's political system, which was also referred to as "China as a body, Western use," it did not advance social modernization. The defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War marked the collapse of the Westernization Movement, and as a result of the Triple Intervention by Russia, Germany, and France, which opposed the cession of the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, the great powers' competition for interests in China intensified. Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and others argued that the Qing's ruling system should be modelled on Japan's Meiji Restoration and made into a constitutional monarchy (the "self-strengthening reform"), and in 1898 Emperor Guangxu accepted their argument and reforms began (the "Boju Reform"). However, the conservatives including Empress Dowager Cixi allied with Yuan Shikai, who controlled the military, and suppressed the reformists, leading to Kang Youwei and others fleeing to Japan, and the reforms failing after just 100 days (the "Boju Reform").

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

The end of tyranny

At that time, the people were increasingly opposed to the rejection of Christianity (Kyukyo) and the economic advance of the Western powers, and this was organized by the Boxers, a private religious association centered in Shandong. The Boxers started a rebellion in 1898, and under the banner of "Support the Qing and Destroy the Western Powers," they approached Beijing, destroying churches, railways, and other structures, and surrounded the foreign embassy area. In response, the Western powers, mainly Japan and Russia, sent troops to suppress the Boxers. The payment of huge indemnities and huge loans promoted the semi-colonization of China, but the Chinese people were moving toward revolution, and the nationalism of "Destroy Manchuria and Rebuild the Han" combined with the anti-feudalism of overseas Chinese, foreign students, and ethnic capitalists to form Sun Yat-sen's China Alliance. In response, the Qing dynasty announced the outline of a constitution in 1908, promising to establish a national parliament nine years later, but it was already too late, as anti-nationalization of the railways movement in Sichuan Province spread to other areas, and on October 10, 1911, the Hubei New Army in Wuchang rose up in revolt, sparking the Xinhai Revolution, and in January 1912, the revolutionaries nominated Sun Yat-sen as provisional president and proclaimed the establishment of the Republic of China in Nanjing. The Qing dynasty's last emperor, Puyi Xuantong, abdicated, but it also marked the end of thousands of years of Chinese autocracy.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

Government

The Manchus, numbering less than 3 million, were able to conquer China, a country with a population 100 times larger and a more advanced social and economic situation, thanks to their overwhelming military power under the Eight Banner system, which made all Manchus soldiers, while the political and administrative system was almost entirely based on the official system of the previous Ming dynasty, correcting its flaws. However, the official system still shows the characteristics of a dynasty ruled by a different ethnic group. At the end of the Qing dynasty, various reforms were carried out, incorporating Western systems.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

Central Government

In 1629 during the reign of Emperor Taizu, the Literary Office was established as an institution for translating Chinese and recording state affairs. In 1636 during the reign of Emperor Taizong, the Literary Office was organized into the Three Inner Chambers: the Naekoksayuan, the Naekbishoyuan, and the Naekhongmunyuan. Each chamber was appointed with a Grand Scholar, but these were merely secretariats directly under the emperor. In 1658, the Three Inner Chambers were reformed and a Ming-style cabinet was established, with the Daxing Daxing and the Associated Grand Scholars. Another supreme government body was the Council of State, consisting of members of the imperial family and Manchu aristocrats, which had been in charge of deliberations on important state affairs, including military affairs, since the reign of Emperor Taizong. During the reign of Emperor Yongzhong (1723-1735), the Military Affairs Office was newly established, and the Minister of Military Affairs was appointed from among the Naekoksayuan, the Minister of the Six Ministries, and the Minister of Military Affairs, and important government affairs came to be concentrated here. The organs of government administration were the six ministries of personnel, household, rites, military, penalties, and work, the five temples including Dali Temple, the supervision body Tosa-in, as well as the Hanlin-in, Guozijian, and Qintian-in, which were inherited from the Ming system. All the chiefs of the central government offices, except for the Zongren-fu, which was related to the Manchus, the Interior Ministry, and the Lifan-in, which handled the affairs of the feudal domains, were dual Manchu and Han officials. In addition, there was a system of special vacancies (official positions were given only to certain ranks), such as the Zongshi-tsutsu, Manchu-tsutsu, and Mongol-tsutsu. In the late Qing dynasty, diplomacy became important, and in 1861 the Prime Minister and Guoji-shi-yamen was established, which was further changed to the Foreign Ministry after the Boxer Rebellion. Along with the preparations for the constitution in 1906, a major reform of the government system was carried out, and a bicameral system was established. In 1908, the Financial Administration Office was established, and in 1911, the Cabinet and the Military Affairs Office were abolished, and a Cabinet of Responsibility system was implemented. During this period, in 1905, the imperial examination system, which had been in place since the Sui and Tang dynasties, was abolished, and people who had graduated from schools were appointed.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

Local government system

Mainland China, Northeast China, and Taiwan were directly controlled territories, while Mongolia, Qinghai, Tibet, and Xinjiang were vassals. Mainland China was divided into 18 provinces, each with a governor and every few provinces with a governor-general, who was the highest official in the region. Below the provinces were prefectures, prefectures, counties, and offices, and their officials were called prefects, prefectural governors, county governors, and tongzhi. Furthermore, roads were established between provinces and prefectures, and they had doin (tao officials). Manchuria was valued as the birthplace of the Qing dynasty, and three generals were appointed to the posts of Shengjing, Jilin, and Heilongjiang, with a special military administration.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

military system

The military system was unique to the Qing dynasty, and the center of it was the Eight Banners. The Eight Banners were a military and administrative organization established with the rise of the Qing dynasty, and all Manchus were organized into eight banners: the four-colored flags of yellow, white, red, and blue, and four banners with borders on each colored flag. Each banner had 300 men in one nil, five nil in one jaran, and five jaran in one banner. Later, during the reign of Taizong, eight Mongolian and Han banners were created. After entering the pass, the Green Camp, made up entirely of Han Chinese, was also established, and in addition to the security police in Beijing, it maintained security in various regions under the command of the governors, governors, admirals, and generals of each province. However, during the White Lotus Rebellion and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom at the end of the Qing dynasty, both the Eight Banners and the Green Camp were ineffective, and instead, the Village Heroes were used. During the Tongzhi (1862-1874) Restoration Period, Li Hongzhang provided western weapons to the local heroes and attempted to westernize the army by using training troops selected from the Eight Banners and Green Camps. Zeng Guofan also established the Yangtze River Navy, followed by the Nanyang and Beiyang Navy. Li Hongzhang's Beiyang Navy was particularly powerful and developed into a modern navy, but both the Qing army and navy suffered major defeats in the First Sino-Japanese War, and after that armies from each province were formed one after another, starting with Zhang Zhidong's self-strengthening army, and these were called new armies. Among them, the Beiyang Standing Army led by Yuan Shikai was the most elite.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

Taxation and Finance

The tax system inherited the Yi Tiao Benpo (Yi Tiao Whip Law) from the end of the Ming Dynasty, but in the last years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, the Shengshi Zi Sheng Ren Ding (Seisei Jisei Jintei) was enacted, and the total amount of the poll tax was fixed, which made it possible to incorporate the poll tax (ding tax) into the land tax (land tax). Eventually, this became the Di Ding Yin System during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, and with this major reform of the tax law, the two types of national collection that had been practiced for a long time in China, taxes and labor, were combined into one tax. A system related to the tax system is the village and township system, which also inherited the Li Jia system from the Ming Dynasty with some regional variations. In Jiangsu and Zhejiang in Jiangnan, the equalization of fields and equal taxes had been practiced since the end of the Ming Dynasty, but this also became Shunzhuang-bin-li after the Yongzheng period. There are many unknowns about other regions. On the other hand, as village organizations for maintaining public order, the Hoko system, which emphasized collective responsibility among neighbors, and the Goyaku system, which expected go shinsen landlords to provide rural guidance, were established.

The proportion of land tax revenue to total revenue reached nearly 70% during the Qianlong period (1736-1795), but the next two major taxes, salt tax and customs duties, gradually increased. Particularly in the late Qing dynasty, there was an increase in both inland and foreign tariffs, such as the sea tariff after the opening of the five ports and the newly established likin (military expenditure) for the suppression of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

Legislation

Before the entry into the customs, there were almost no written legal codes, but in 1646 the Qing Law Code, which followed the Ming Law, was enacted as a criminal code, and then in 1679 the Criminal Affairs Department's Current Rules and Regulations were created, which were incorporated into the Law and compiled as the Qing Law Code in 1740. The administrative code also followed the Ming Hui Code, and in 1690 the Kangxi Daqing Hui Code was created, and subsequent codes were compiled during the reigns of the Yongzheng, Qianlong, Jiaqing, and Guangxu, but the cases that were initially included in the Hui Code were separated and made independent as the Hui Code Rules and Regulations or Hui Code Cases after the Qianlong period. However, the Hui Code only provided a general outline, and in actual practice the rules and regulations created by each government agency were given weight.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

Society and Economy

As in the Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties, bureaucrats, landlords and merchants were the ruling class of society, and their land was cultivated by tenant farmers. On the other hand, many of the artisans and merchants living in the cities were small business owners, and were under the control of the bureaucrats. After the mid-Ming period, as silver began to circulate, the number of regular markets in rural areas increased, and these developed into towns and cities. During this time, the gap between rich and poor in rural areas widened further, and many peasants lost their land and became tenant farmers, or became idlers in the cities. On the other hand, large landlords appeared who bought the land of the poor, and they passed the imperial examinations to obtain the status of Jinshi or Juren, and also obtained official positions, becoming known as town gentry, and built vast mansions in the cities. After the wars at the end of the Ming and beginning of the Qing dynasties, the Qing government tried to control distribution and stabilize prices, and there were periods when rural areas recovered, but generally speaking, while rural areas gradually became impoverished, cities flourished, mainly with the ruling class and merchants and industrialists. The prosperity of cities was also supported by the development of various industries. In agriculture, the Hunan and Hubei regions in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River were developed, becoming a grain-producing region that surpassed the lower Yangtze River delta, and in the late Qing dynasty, development began in Taiwan, Guangxi, and the three northeastern provinces. In general, rice cultivation is the main industry in central and southern China, and wheat and millet cultivation is the main industry in northern China, but intensive agriculture such as double cropping and double cropping was practiced, and in addition to sericulture and cotton cultivation, the production of raw materials for handicrafts such as tea, paper, indigo, hemp, and beans increased, and from the Qing dynasty, the cultivation of corn, sweet potato, tobacco, peanuts, etc. became widespread. These new crops were primarily intended as famine prevention or cash crops, and their spread contributed to stabilizing the lives of farmers and urban residents. In addition to the traditional raw silk and silk fabrics, rural cottage cotton fabric industries had been widespread since the Ming dynasty in the area around Shanghai in the lower Yangtze River delta, and hundreds of thousands of craftsmen were engaged in the production of ceramics in Jingdezhen, with division of labor within the production process. The development of agricultural and industrial production led to a boom in commerce. Shanxi merchants in the north (from Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces) and Xin'an merchants in the south (from Anhui province) and others established associations and public offices in various regions for the same trade or hometown, banding together to handle nationwide trade. From the mid-Qing dynasty onwards, Fujian merchants (Min merchants) and Ningbo merchants (or Zhejiang merchants) also advanced into Shanghai and other areas, but soon they became active overseas along with overseas Chinese. After 1757, foreign trade was limited to the single port of Canton, where the trade was conducted by the so-called Thirteen Canton merchants, or Kohongs, who were chartered merchants.

Economic development led to a rapid population growth. In the 18th century, development reached every corner of China, even reaching the homes of ethnic minorities such as the Miao and Zhuang peoples in Hunan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan. However, this resulted in friction between them and the Han people, leading to ethnic minority rebellions. In addition, peasants who fled to the borders often rebelled, relying on secret religions such as the White Lotus Sect. Even in areas other than borders or ethnic minority areas, the surplus population in rural areas often flowed into cities and became vagrants and ruffians. With this class at the core, political secret societies such as the Gang (Green Gang, Red Gang, etc.) and the Huppo (Tri-He Hui, Ge Lao Hui) were formed during the Qing Dynasty. The activities of such Huppo can also be seen in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom movement and the Xinhai Revolution at the end of the Qing Dynasty.

At first, the Qing Dynasty imposed strict maritime bans, and trade with the single port of Guangdong was one-sided, with tea and raw silk exports being the main products. However, in the 19th century, the relationship was reversed when Indian opium was smuggled in. After the Opium Wars, the Chinese economy was exhausted due to the continued import of opium and the outflow of silver, but the indigenous domestic cotton industry, which had amazing economic value when combined with agriculture, resisted, and British industrial capital's plan to export cotton textiles failed. However, due to the relentless wars, treaty arrangements, and political pressure that followed, imports of cotton products exceeded those of opium in the 1880s, and cotton exports turned to a surplus, and the trade structure took on the form of a raw materials colony. During this period, the Westernization Movement was underway, and government capital entered not only the munitions industry but also private-sector companies such as the Shanghai Machinery and Fabrics Bureau, but this only served to suppress the development of private companies. On the other hand, after the Sino-Japanese War, the great powers entered the imperialist stage and their division of China became more blatant, intensifying their efforts in the form of loans, finance, acquisition of railway interests, and direct expansion of businesses, until China became a complete semi-colony.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

culture

Many Qing emperors were fond of learning, and Emperor Kangxi, in particular, in order to compete with the three feudal domains including Wu Sangui and capture the hearts of the Jiangnan scholar-officials, invited scholars to lecture, established Zhu Xi's philosophy as the orthodox official school, and became familiar with Chinese culture. On the other hand, scholars from the end of the Ming Dynasty such as Gu Yanwu, Huang Zongxi, and Wang Fuzhi wrote books in the countryside that had anti-Manchu national consciousness and political views. The Qing Dynasty eventually took a strict stance against these (penalization of letters, banned books), and conducted a national examination of books by focusing on the editing of books. As a result, scholarship became detached from politics and was entirely immersed in the verification and interpretation of classics. This study is called the study of historical evidence, but the intense sense of governance (political practical thought) that its founder Gu Yanwu had was lost. Scholars such as Qian Daxin (history), Dai Zhen (philosophy), and Duan Yuzai (character phonology) emerged, and were mobilized in large-scale cultural projects such as the Kangxi Dictionary by Emperor Kangxi, the Compendium of Ancient and Modern Books by Emperor Kangxi and Yongzheng, and the Complete Collection of the Four Storehouses by Emperor Qianlong. Although the seeds of modern critical spirit and scientific thought can be seen in textual criticism, its impracticality eventually led to the rise of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao of the Gongyang School, which valued governance, in the midst of the crisis in Chinese society after Daoguang, and in the ancient literature school, Zeng Guofan and Zhang Zhidong led a movement to revive Song learning. The arguments of Zeng and Zhang were developed as "Chinese body, Western use" during the Westernization Movement, but the full-scale introduction of Western thought by Yan Fu and others, and the experience of new thought and new learning through studying in Europe, the United States, and Japan brought the curtain down on Qing culture. Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People - race, civil rights, and people's livelihood - were the crystallization of this.

The literature of the Qing dynasty, following the Yuan and Ming dynasties, is dominated by plays and novels. The two greatest plays are "The Legend of the Palace of Everlasting" and "The Legend of the Peach Blossom Fan," which were performed in the Peking Opera, a collection of Chinese classical drama. Novels include "Strange Stories from a Liaozhai" and "Six Records of a Life in a Floating World," as well as two long works, "The History of the Confucian Scholar" and "Dream of the Red Chamber." Both of these novels concretely depict the families and personalities of Manchu aristocrats and Han Chinese bureaucrats in the flourishing old Chinese society. In the late Qing dynasty, while Lin Zhou and others began to introduce modern Western novels, novels exposing corruption in the government such as "The Actual Record of the Official World," "The Travels of Lao Can," and "The Strange Current Situation of the Twenty Years' History" appeared, and newspapers such as "Shen Bao," "Su Bao," and "Yiwen Lu" began to be published.

The mainstream of painting has been the Southern style since the Ming Dynasty, but in the early Qing Dynasty, the four Wangs Wu Yun, Wang Shimin, Wang Jian, Wang Hui, Wang Yuanqi, Wu Li, and Yun Shouping, who were descended from Dong Qichang in the late Ming Dynasty, appeared and established the court painting circle, but the style of Shi Tao and Ba Da Shanren, who had a fierce resistance spirit, was also popular. In addition, the Italian Castiglione (Lang Shining) brought Western styles such as perspective and shading, which influenced Chinese painting.

Until the mid-Qing period, calligraphy was dominated by the style of Dong Qichang from the late Ming period, but towards the end of the Qing period, importance was placed on the calligraphy of monuments from the Northern Dynasties, and a new style was brought about by Ruan Yuan, Bao Shichen and others.

In the field of crafts, luxurious and intricate items such as ceramics, jade, glassware, and stationery were produced, which encouraged the literati tastes of the imperial court and the bureaucrats and nobles.

The architecture inherited the traditional styles of the Song and Ming dynasties, but was elaborate in its architectural techniques and coloring. In addition, a Baroque Western-style building was constructed in the Yuanmingyuan villa.

[Mamoru Kawakatsu]

"The History of China 7: The Qing Empire" by Tsuneo Masui (1974, Kodansha)

[Reference] | History of Japan-China Negotiations [Chronology] | Qing Dynasty (Chronology)

Qing Dynasty (Aisin Gioro clan) / Brief family tree
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Qing Dynasty (Aisin Gioro clan) / Brief family tree

Qing Dynasty Territory
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Qing Dynasty Territory

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国の東北（満州）から興り、明(みん)を継いで中国を支配した満洲族の王朝（1616～1912）。中国史上最後の王朝で、その末期は中国近代史に入る。

［川勝　守］

歴史の概観

全国統一まで

満洲族は半猟、半牧、半農の生活を営んだツングース系民族で、女真(じょしん)または女直(じょちょく)といわれていた。金(きん)の滅亡（1234）後、元(げん)・明(みん)に服属したが、明では海西(かいせい)、建州(けんしゅう)、野人(やじん)の3部に分かれ、衛所(えいしょ)制が敷かれた。海西、建州は耕牛や漢人労働の利用により、しだいに文化・経済生活を向上させた。17世紀に入ると、建州女直のヌルハチは、豊臣(とよとみ)秀吉の朝鮮出兵によって明の統制力が緩んだのを機として、女直諸部を統合し、1616年ハン位（清の太祖）について、国号を金（後金(こうきん)）と称した。明は大軍を派遣したが、19年のサルフの戦いに敗れた。ヌルハチは遼東(りょうとう)平野に進出し、瀋陽(しんよう)（奉天府(ほうてんふ)）に遷都した。26年ヌルハチが死ぬと、子のホンタイジ（太宗）が位につき、内モンゴルのチャハル部を討ち、「大元伝国(だいげんでんこく)の璽(じ)」を得たので、36年改めて皇帝の位につき、国号を清と称した。同年、朝鮮を完全に屈服させ、その宗主国となった。当時、中国では都市の民変、農村の抗租などの民衆運動が激化し、また朝廷内部の党争が尾を引き、明の支配は揺らいでいた。明から清へ投降する士大夫が多くなり、中国的な行政組織が整備された。1643年、太宗が没し、子の順治帝(じゅんちてい)が幼少で即位すると、睿親王(えいしんのう)ドルゴンが摂政(せっしょう)となり、翌年李自成(りじせい)によって北京(ペキン)が攻略されると、山海関の守将呉三桂(ごさんけい)と交渉し、呉三桂を援助し明皇帝の仇(あだ)に報いるとして、山海関を越え、華北に入った（清の入関）。清の大軍は北京を回復し、李自成を追って華北一帯を制圧した。清は北京に遷都し、明の後を継ぐ中国王朝となった。異民族支配への抵抗は、まず福王、唐王、桂王(けいおう)ら明の皇族、遺臣らによる南明(なんみん)の動きとなったが、大勢を回復することはできなかった。むしろ清の統一への障害は、一つには清初の三大思想家、顧炎武(こえんぶ)、黄宗羲(こうそうぎ)、王船山(おうせんざん)の流れをくむ江南士大夫の反清感情であり、もう一つは平定に功があった呉三桂（平西王、雲南）、尚可喜(しょうかき)（平南王、福建）、耿仲明(こうちゅうめい)（靖南(せいなん)王、広東(カントン)）のいわゆる三藩の強大化にあった。1645年、南京(ナンキン)を攻略すると、女真の風習である弁髪を強制したのも、中華の誇り高き江南人士に清への服従を強いる踏絵であった。そのほか機会をとらえては奏銷案(そうしょうあん)（税の未納者を処罰したもの）などの疑獄を構えて反清排満感情を抑圧し、文字の獄、禁書を行った。三藩に対しては、急死した順治帝のあと、8歳で即位した康煕(こうき)帝が成人して親政を始めるや、1673年の撤藩(てっぱん)の議を契機に三藩削除の策を進めた。そのため三藩の乱が起こり、一時は南方6省を失うという事態にまで及んだが、81年、鎮圧に成功した。ついで83年には、最後の明の遺臣で台湾に拠(よ)った鄭成功(ていせいこう)の子孫も帰順し、清の統一は完成した。

［川勝　守］

全盛期

康煕帝から雍正帝(ようせいてい)を経て乾隆帝(けんりゅうてい)の中ごろまでの約130年間は清の全盛期で、その版図は拡大した。康煕帝は東進南下したロシアと1689年ネルチンスク条約を結んで、ロシア人を黒竜江(こくりゅうこう)流域から駆逐した。ついでモンゴル高原に覇を唱えたジュンガルに雍正、乾隆の3代にわたって遠征し、青海を版図に加え、チベットを保護国化し、ジュンガルの故地に準部(じゅんぶ)・回部(かいぶ)（後の新疆(しんきょう)省）を置いた。乾隆帝の時代には、さらに西トルキスタンのコーカンド、ブハラ、アフガニスタンにも勢力を伸ばし、ビルマ（現ミャンマー）、ベトナムから、ネパールのグルカにまで遠征軍が送られ、諸国は清の朝貢国となった。

　康煕、雍正、乾隆の3帝はいずれも有能な専制君主で、中国の文化や伝統を尊重して漢人官僚を重用し、租税の減免、黄河の治水、官吏の綱紀粛正を断行して民心を集め、社会の安定に寄与した。しかし、乾隆帝の晩年になると、権臣和珅(わしん)が賄賂(わいろ)をむさぼるなど、官吏の腐敗が著しくなって政治が乱れた。しかも、人口が3億人を超え、余剰人口は都市の流民や遊民、秘密結社や宗教結社を頼る者となった。そのほか少数民族地区へ入り込む者や海外へ出て華僑(かきょう)となる者も増大した。支配民族である満洲族の生活も苦しくなった。社会矛盾が増大して、地方に反乱が起こった。乾隆末年、四川(しせん)、雲南の辺境に起こったイスラム教徒（回民）やミャオ族などの諸反乱は、乾隆帝が嘉慶帝(かけいてい)に譲位した（1795）ころ、10年にわたって湖北ほか5省を席捲(せっけん)した白蓮(びゃくれん)教徒の大反乱となった。官兵である八旗(はっき)は無力で、民間の地主の軍（郷勇(きょうゆう)）の力を借りた。しかし、その後も華南の海寇(かいこう)や北京の天理教の乱などが続き、世情は騒然としてきた。

［川勝　守］

列強の侵略

すでに18世紀末に産業革命の段階に入ったイギリスは、販路拡大を企図して、乾隆帝のときにマカートニー、嘉慶帝のときにアマースト、道光帝のころネーピアなどを派遣して交渉にあたったが成功せず、1840年アヘン問題に端を発してついに戦争となった（アヘン戦争）。広州の林則徐(りんそくじょ)らの活躍は目覚ましかったが、戦争の長期化を恐れた朝廷は、イギリスと講和し、1842年南京条約を結んだ。この条約で香港(ホンコン)島が割譲され、上海(シャンハイ)ほかの5港が開港された。翌43年には開港場における居留地（租界）の設置、領事裁判権などを認める不平等条約である虎門寨(こもんさい)追加条約が結ばれた。44年にはアメリカ（望廈(ぼうか)条約）、フランス（黄埔(こうほ)条約）もイギリス同様の条約を結んだ。以後、清朝は列強の中国侵略の媒体としての性格を強めた。しかも中国人の中華意識と中国の土地が広く物が豊か（地大物博）であることに支えられた清は、自由貿易と国際法になじまず、再度の戦争を繰り返した。1856年のアロー戦争、84年の清仏戦争、94年の日清戦争など、清は戦争に敗北し多大な賠償金を負担した。こうした結果、大量の銀が流出し、人々は物価騰貴に苦しみ、また、列強による中国内の権益拡大とともに、従来の生活の変更を余儀なくされる者も増大した。洪秀全(こうしゅうぜん)が清朝打倒と地上の天国の建設を目ざした太平天国も、地主制などの封建的諸関係の変革とともに、外国勢力と対決せざるをえなかったのは、中国近代史の必然であった。清軍の無力を知った地主や大商人は情勢の進展に驚き、郷土の自衛軍を組織した。なかでも曽国藩(そうこくはん)の湘勇(しょうゆう)、李鴻章(りこうしょう)の淮勇(わいゆう)がその中心となった。

　太平天国の鎮圧後、曽国藩、李鴻章、左宗棠(さそうとう)らの漢民族出身の官僚は政府の要職を占め、西洋の技術を取り入れ、富国強兵・殖産興業に努めた。これを洋務運動といったが、「中体西用(ちゅうたいせいよう)」といわれるように中国の政治体制を変えずに西洋の科学技術を取り入れようとしたもので、社会の近代化は進まなかった。日清戦争の敗北は洋務運動の破綻(はたん)を示し、しかも日本への遼東半島割譲に反対するロシア、ドイツ、フランスの三国干渉の結果、列強の中国における利権獲得競争が激化した。康有為(こうゆうい)、梁啓超(りょうけいちょう)らは、清の支配体制を日本の明治維新に倣って立憲君主制にすべきであると主張し（変法自強）、1898年光緒帝(こうしょてい)にその主張が認められ、改革が始まった（戊戌(ぼじゅつ)の変法(へんぽう)）。しかし西太后らの保守派は、軍を握る袁世凱(えんせいがい)と結び、改革派を弾圧、康有為らは日本へ亡命し、改革は100日で挫折(ざせつ)した（戊戌の政変）。

［川勝　守］

専制国家の終焉

当時、民衆のキリスト教排斥（仇教(きゅうきょう)）と列強の経済的進出への反対が高まり、これを山東を中心とした民間宗教結社の義和団が組織した。義和団は1898年暴動を起こし、「扶清滅洋(ふしんめつよう)」を旗印に教会、鉄道などを破壊しながら北京に迫り、外国公使館地域を包囲した。これに対し列強は、日本・ロシアを中心に軍隊を派遣し、義和団を鎮圧した。多大な賠償金の支払いと巨額の借款は中国の半植民地化を促進させたが、しかし中国民衆の動向は革命の機運に向かっており、「滅満興漢(めつまんこうかん)」の民族主義は華僑(かきょう)、留学生、民族資本家の反封建主義と合し、孫文(そんぶん／スンウェン)の中国同盟会に結集した。これに対し清朝は、1908年憲法大綱を発表し、9年後の国会開設を約束したが、すでに遅く、四川省での鉄道国有化反対運動が各地へ波及し、11年10月10日には武昌(ぶしょう)の湖北新軍が蜂起(ほうき)して辛亥(しんがい)革命となり、12年1月、革命派は孫文を臨時大総統に推し、南京に中華民国の成立を宣言した。ここに清朝最後の皇帝宣統帝(せんとうてい)溥儀(ふぎ／プーイー)は退位したが、それは中国専制君主制数千年の終焉(しゅうえん)でもあった。

［川勝　守］

行政

300万人に満たない満洲族が、100倍の人口をもち進んだ社会経済状態の中国を制圧できたのは、満洲族を残らず皆兵とした八旗の制度によって圧倒的な軍事力を支えとした一方、政治・行政制度では、前代の明の官制を、欠陥を是正しながらほぼ全面的に踏襲したことによる。しかし、やはり異民族支配の王朝としての特色が官制上にみられる。なお、清末に至り、西洋の制度を取り入れて諸改革が行われた。

［川勝　守］

中央官制

太祖時代の1629年、漢文翻訳・国事記録の機関として文館が設置され、次の太宗時代の1636年に内国史院、内秘書院、内弘文院の内三院となり、各大学士が置かれたが、皇帝直属の書記室にすぎなかった。1658年、内三院は改められ、明制の内閣が設けられ、殿閣大学士と協弁大学士が置かれた。また別に最高政務機関としては太宗時代から皇族・満洲族貴族からなる議政王大臣があり、1644年の入関後も軍事をはじめ重要な国務の審議にあたったが、雍正年間（1723～35）に至り新たに軍機処が設けられ、内閣大学士、六部(りくぶ)尚書・侍郎のなかから軍機大臣が任ぜられ、重要な政務はここに集中するようになった。政務執行機関は吏・戸・礼・兵・刑・工の六部(りくぶ)、大理寺以下の5寺、監察機関の都察院(とさついん)のほか、翰林院(かんりんいん)、国子監(こくしかん)、欽天監(きんてんかん)など明制を継承した。満洲族関係の宗人府、内務府や藩部の事務を扱う理藩院(りはんいん)などを除く中央官庁の長官は、いずれも満漢併用(まんかんへいよう)であった。なおそのほかには宗室欠(そうしつけつ)、満州欠、蒙古欠(もうこけつ)などの専欠（ある特定の身分に限って、官職上の地位を与える）の制もとられていた。清末になると外交が重要となり、1861年に総理各国事務衙門(がもん)が設けられ、義和団事件後さらに外務部に改められた。1906年立憲準備とともに官制の大改革が行われ、一一部二院制が行われた。08年には資政院が開かれ、11年には内閣・軍機処が廃止され、責任内閣制が実施された。なお、この間1905年には、隋(ずい)・唐以来行われた科挙が廃止され、学校出身者が任用された。

［川勝　守］

地方官制

中国本土、東北、台湾を直轄地とし、モンゴル、青海、チベット、新疆を藩部とした。中国本土は18省に分けられ、各省に巡撫(じゅんぶ)、数省ごとに総督が置かれ、総督は地方の最高長官であった。省の下は府、州、県、庁に分けられ、長官を知府、知州、知県、同知といった。なお省と府との中間に道が置かれ、道員がいた。満州は清朝発祥の地として重視され、盛京、吉林(きつりん)、黒竜江の3将軍が置かれ、特別の軍政が敷かれた。

［川勝　守］

兵制

兵制は清朝独特で、その中心は八旗である。八旗は清の興起とともに行われた軍事ならびに行政の組織で、黄・白・紅・藍(あい)の四色旗と各色旗にへりをつけた4旗の計8旗に全満洲族が編成された。各旗は男300人を1ニル、5ニルを1ジャラン、5ジャランを1旗とした。のち、太宗時代にモンゴル、漢民族各八旗がつくられた。入関後にはもっぱら漢民族による緑営も創設され、北京の治安警察のほか、各省総督、巡撫、提督、総兵の指揮下で各地の治安維持にあたった。しかし、清末の白蓮教徒の乱や太平天国では、八旗、緑営ともに無力で、かわって郷勇が用いられた。同治（1862～74）中興期には李鴻章が郷勇に洋式武器を与えたり、八旗、緑営から選抜した練軍をもって洋式陸軍化を試み、また曽国藩が長江水師をつくり、ついで南洋・北洋水師がつくられた。とくに李鴻章の北洋水師は強力で近代海軍となったが、清の陸・海軍ともに日清戦争で大敗し、以後は張之洞(ちょうしどう)の自強軍に始まる各省の軍が次々とでき、これを新軍と称した。なかでも袁世凱の率いる北洋常備軍がもっとも精鋭であった。

［川勝　守］

税制・財政

税制は、明末の一条鞭法(いちじょうべんぽう)を継承したが、康煕帝の末年に盛世滋生人丁(せいせいじせいじんてい)の制定が行われ、丁額（人頭税額）全体が固定されたことによって、人頭税（丁税）を土地税（地税）のなかに繰り入れることが実現した。やがて、これは雍正帝の時代に地丁銀制となったが、こうした税法の大改革により、これまで中国で長く行われてきた、税と徭役(ようえき)という2種の国家収取は税一本にまとめられた。税制と関連した制度に村落・郷村制度があるが、これも明代以来の里甲制が地方的変差をみせながら継承された。江南の江蘇(こうそ)、浙江(せっこう)では明末以来、均田均役が行われたが、これも雍正年間以後、順荘編里となった。その他の地域については不明な点が多い。一方、治安維持の郷村組織としては、近隣どうしの連帯責任を重んじる保甲制度と、郷紳地主の農村指導を期待した郷約が行われた。

　地丁銀の歳入全体に占める比重は乾隆年間（1736～95）にほぼ70％に達したが、これに次ぐ主要税目である塩課、関税の二者がしだいに増加した。とくに清末には、五港開港後の海関税や、太平天国鎮圧の軍費として新設された釐金(りきん)など、内地、外国両面の関税の増設があった。

［川勝　守］

法制

入関前には成文法典はほとんどみられなかったが、1646年刑法典として明律を踏襲した清律集解附例(しんりつしっかいふれい)が制定され、ついで79年刑部現行則例がつくられ、それが律に取り入れられ、1740年に清律令として集成された。行政法典も明会典を踏襲して1690年康煕の大清会典が作成され、以後、雍正、乾隆、嘉慶、光緒の各代にわたって編纂(へんさん)されたが、初め会典内に入れられてあった事例は乾隆以後、会典則例または会典事例として分離独立させた。ただし会典は大綱を示したにすぎず、実際の運用には各官庁別につくられた則例、事例が重んぜられた。

［川勝　守］

社会・経済

宋(そう)・元・明と同じく官僚、地主、商人が社会の支配層であり、彼らの所有地は佃戸(でんこ)によって耕作された。一方、都市に住む職人や商人も零細な経営者が多く、しかも官僚の統制下にあった。明の中期以後、銀が流通すると、農村に定期市が増え、それらは鎮や市に発達した。この間、農村の貧富の差がさらに拡大し、多くの農民が土地を失って佃戸となり、また都市の遊民となった。その反面、没落した者の土地を買収した大地主が出現し、彼らは科挙に及第して進士や挙人などの身分を獲得し、また官職を手に入れて郷紳とよばれ、都市に広大な邸宅を構えた。明末清初の戦禍の後、清朝政府が流通の抑制や物価の安定を図ったこともあって、農村の回復がみられた時期もあったが、一般的には農村はしだいに疲弊するのに対し、都市は支配層や商工業者を中心ににぎわいをみせた。都市の繁栄は諸産業の発展にも支えられていた。農業では揚子江(ようすこう)中流域の湖南・湖北地方の開発が進み、揚子江の下流デルタをしのぐ穀倉地帯となったが、清後期には台湾、広西、さらに東北三省にも開拓が始まった。一般に華中・華南は稲作、華北は麦・粟(あわ)作が中心であるが、二毛作や二期作など集約農業が行われ、養蚕、綿花栽培のほか、茶、紙、藍(あい)、麻、豆などの手工業の原料生産が増加し、清代から新たにトウモロコシ、甘藷(かんしょ)、タバコ、ラッカセイなどの栽培が普及した。これらの新種の作物はおもに飢饉(ききん)対策用や換金作物であったから、その普及は農民や都市住民の生活の安定に寄与した。工業では伝統的な生糸・絹織物のほか、揚子江下流デルタ地方の上海付近に、明代以来綿織物業の農村家内工業が普及しており、また景徳鎮(けいとくちん)の陶磁器生産には数十万の職人が従事し、生産過程での分業も行われた。農業・工業の生産の発展は商業を盛んにした。北の山西商人（山西省・陝西(せんせい)省出身）、南の新安商人（安徽(あんき)省出身）などは、各地に同業あるいは同郷ごとに会館や公所を設けて結束し、全国的な取引に応じた。清代中期以後には、福建商人（閩商(びんしょう)）、寧波(ニンポー)商人（または浙江商人）も上海などに進出したが、やがて華僑の活動とともに海外での活躍が目だった。また1757年以後、対外貿易は広東1港に限られていたが、そこで取引をしていたのはいわゆる広東十三行とよぶ特許商人公行(コーホン)であった。

　経済の発展によって人口は激増した。18世紀には中国の隅々まで開発が進み、湖南、四川、広西、貴州、雲南などに分布するミャオ族、チワン族などの少数民族の居地まで及んだ。しかしその結果、彼らと漢族との摩擦を生じ、少数民族の反乱を招いた。また、辺境に流亡してきた農民は白蓮教などの秘密宗教に頼って、しばしば反乱を起こした。なお、辺境や少数民族地区でなくとも、農村の過剰人口は、ともすれば都市に流入し、遊民や無頼となったが、この階層を中核として清代には政治秘密結社の幇(パン)（青幇(チンパン)・紅幇(ホンパン)など）や会党（三合会や哥老(かろう)会）ができた。清末の太平天国運動や辛亥革命にもこうした会党の活動がみられる。

　清は初め海禁を厳しくし、広東1港で、貿易は茶、生糸輸出を主とする片貿易であったが、19世紀に入り、インド産アヘンが密輸入されるとその関係は逆になった。アヘン戦争後、引き続くアヘン輸入と銀の流出のため中国経済は疲弊したが、農業と結合して驚くべき経済性をもつ在来家内綿工業が抵抗し、イギリス産業資本の綿織物輸出の思惑は外れた。しかしその後の執拗(しつよう)な戦争、条約取決め、政治圧力によって、1880年代には綿製品の輸入はアヘンをしのぎ、逆に綿花が出超に転じるなど貿易構造は原料植民地的な型を示した。この時期、洋務運動が展開し、軍需工業のほか上海機器織布局など民需企業にも官僚資本の進出があったが、いたずらに民間企業の発展を抑えただけであった。他方、日清戦争後、帝国主義段階に入った列強の中国分割は露骨となり、借款、金融、鉄道利権の獲得、企業の直接進出の形で強められ、中国は完全に半植民地化した。

［川勝　守］

文化

清は好学の皇帝が多かったが、とくに康煕帝は呉三桂ら三藩に対抗して、江南士大夫の心をつかむためにも、学者を招いて講学させ、朱子学を正統的な官学とし、漢文化になじんだ。一方、明末以来の学者顧炎武、黄宗羲、王夫之(おうふうし)らは野にあって、反満洲族的な民族意識や政治観をもった書物を著した。清朝はやがてこれらに対し厳しい態度で臨み（文字の獄、禁書）、書物の編集事業に事寄せて国家検定の作業を行った。そのため学問は政治から遊離し、ひたすら古典の実証と解釈に沈潜した。この学を考証学とよぶが、その祖の顧炎武がもっていた激しい経世（政治的実践思想）の念は失われていった。史学の銭大昕(せんたいきん)、哲学思想の戴震(たいしん)、文字音韻学の段玉裁らの学者が輩出し、康煕帝の『康煕字典』、康煕・雍正帝の『古今図書集成』、乾隆帝の『四庫全書』などの大規模な文化事業に動員された。考証学には近代的批判精神や科学思想の萌芽(ほうが)もみられるが、やがてその非実践性から、道光以後の中国社会の危機のなかで、経世を重んじる公羊(くよう)学派の康有為、梁啓超の台頭をよび、古文学派においても曽国藩や張之洞の宋学復興の運動となった。曽、張らの主張は洋務運動のなかで「中体西用」となって展開されたが、やがて厳復らによる西洋思想の本格的紹介や、欧米、日本への留学による新思想、新学問の経験によって清朝文化は幕を下ろす。孫文の民族・民権・民生の三民主義はその結晶であった。

　清代の文学は、元・明に引き続いて戯曲や小説が多いが、戯曲では『長生殿伝奇』『桃花扇伝奇』が二大名作とされ、これらは中国古典劇の集成である京劇で上演された。小説では『聊斎志異(りょうさいしい)』『浮生六記』などのほか、『儒林外史』『紅楼夢(こうろうむ)』の二大長編がつくられた。これらはいずれも、爛熟(らんじゅく)しきった旧中国社会の満洲族貴族や漢民族官僚の家庭と人物を具体的に描写している。また清末には林紓(りんじょ)らによって西欧近代小説の紹介が始まる一方、『官場現形記』『老残遊記』『二十年目睹之怪現状(もくとのかいげんじょう)』など官界の腐敗を暴露した小説が現れ、『申報』『蘇報』『益聞録』などの新聞の発刊も始まった。

　絵画の主流は、明以来の南画であるが、清初に明末の董其昌(とうきしょう)の流れをくむ王時敏、王鑑(おうかん)、王翬(おうき)、王原祁(おうげんき)、呉歴、惲寿平(うんじゅへい)の四王呉惲が現れ宮廷画壇をつくったが、石濤(せきとう)、八大山人らの激しい抵抗精神をもつ作風も盛んであった。なお、イタリア人カスティリオーネ（郎世寧(ろうせいねい)）が、西洋の遠近法や陰影法などの作風をもたらし、中国絵画に影響を与えた。

　書道は、清中期までは明末の董其昌の流れが大勢を占めたが、清末に北朝の碑の書法が重視され、阮元(げんげん)、包世臣(ほうせいしん)らによって新風がおこった。

　工芸は陶磁器、玉器、ガラス器、文房具などに豪華で精巧なものがつくられ、宮廷や官僚士大夫の文人趣味を増長させた。

　建築は、宋～明の伝統様式を継承したが、建築技法や彩色に技巧が凝らされた。なお離宮である円明園にはバロック式洋風建築もつくられた。

［川勝　守］

『増井経夫著『中国の歴史7　清帝国』（1974・講談社）』

[参照項目] | 日中交渉史[年表] | 清の時代（年表）

清（愛新覚羅氏）／略系図

清の版図

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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