Private house - Minka

Japanese: 民家 - みんか

A home for ordinary people. It often refers to a historical home for ordinary people. In the narrow sense, it refers to farmhouses up until the Edo period, but in the broad sense, it usually includes farmhouses and townhouses up until the Edo period, as well as farmhouses and townhouses from the Meiji period onwards that still retain their traditions. Even among homes for ordinary people, modern farmhouses and townhouses, and urban housing, are not considered private homes. In the early Showa period, architects traveled around the old farmhouses that remained in the countryside, searching for and showcasing beautiful homes that were representative of the region. This, combined with the folk art movement led by Muneyoshi Yanagi, which spread around the same time, brought beautiful old traditional private homes into the spotlight.

[Hirai Sei]

History of the Farm

The oldest surviving remains are from the Muromachi period. The Furui and Hakogi houses in Hyogo Prefecture are known as Sennen-ya (thousand-year houses). They have a simple appearance with low eaves and overhanging roofs.

No farmhouses from before the Muromachi period remain, but settlements of pit dwellings, such as the Karako ruins (Nara Prefecture), have been excavated here and there as Yayoi period ruins. When rice cultivation was introduced to the Yayoi period, it is thought that raised-floor dwellings, with floors about one meter above ground level, were also introduced along with rice cultivation. This type of dwelling has been discovered in Kitakyushu and areas along the Seto Inland Sea. Rice cultivation spread to the northern part of the Kanto region in a short period after it was introduced to Japan, but in these areas the only buildings with raised floors were storehouses, and pit dwellings continued to be the norm. Thus, even in the Yayoi period, pit dwellings were widely used as dwellings, and their plan varied by region, with some being square with rounded corners, others close to a circle, and others hexagonal.

In addition, there were flatland dwellings such as those found at the Toro ruins, which were structurally exactly the same as pit dwellings, but had earth piled up around them and the living space was barely dug down. When people began to cultivate rice, they started building dwellings on low, humid land suitable for creating rice paddies, and because of the humidity it became impossible to dig down like in pit dwellings, so excavations have revealed that people either switched to flatland dwellings or lived in pit dwellings with tree branches or straw laid on the floor.

There are almost no historical documents about farmhouses from the ancient and medieval periods, but a few buildings that resemble farmhouses can be seen in picture scrolls and folding screens. In the Shigisan Engi Emaki, painted in the Kamakura period, a farmhouse with a shingled gabled roof can be seen in the countryside on the way from the capital to Shigisan. In the Ippen Shonin Eden, also painted in the Kamakura period, many of the farmhouses depicted are not just one building, but several buildings. In addition to picture scrolls, the Rakuchu Rakugaizu byobu, a folding screen depicting Kyoto from the Muromachi period, depicts a farmhouse outside the capital made up of several buildings surrounded by earthen walls.

Entering the Edo period, the state of farming villages near Utsunomiya in the Kanto region becomes clear from historical documents in which the Tokugawa Shogun had floor plans drawn out for all the houses in the village for his retainers to stay when he made a pilgrimage to the Toshogu Shrine in Nikko. Looking at these documents from the 18th century, we can see that in farming villages at the time, most houses were around 20 tsubo (approximately 66 square meters), with some being 4 to 5 tsubo in size and many smaller houses of less than 10 tsubo in size, while there were very few large houses. We can also see that in the 18th century, there were many farmhouses in the vicinity of Utsunomiya, far from the coastline, where the dirt floor area with the hearth was separated from the main house as a separate building, a style that now only remains in areas along the Pacific coast.

[Hirai Sei]

Farm type

The oldest farmhouse remains, the Furui family home from the Muromachi period, has been restored with few openings. Inside, not only the beams and other timber materials but also the floorboards and pillars have been finished with a chisel or a spear plane, and no base plane was used.

During the Edo period, farmhouses created distinctive styles that were suited to the climate and industry of each region. The basic style was a rectangular plan with a hipped or gabled roof, but there were also a variety of other styles, such as the Gassho-zukuri style of Hida, where gable roofs developed significantly for sericulture, the style of private homes in Koshu, which have large gabled roofs with the center cut up, the Magariya and Chumon-zukuri style of the Tohoku region that incorporate stables, the Honmune-zukuri style, characterized by a large, gently sloping gable roof and sparrow dances on the gables, the Yamato-mune style of the Nara Basin, and the Kudo-zukuri style of northern Kyushu.

[Hirai Sei]

Farmhouse layout

Old farmhouses have simple floor plans and are not very large. Even in the 18th century, small farmhouses had simple floor plans, and it was not uncommon for them to be one room with no partitions at all. Even after the middle of the Edo period, there were houses where the entire house was a single room with a dirt floor, and when necessary, half of the room was simply covered with rice grains and straw mats. However, in general, about half of the building was a dirt floor, and the rest was divided into a large wooden-floored room facing the dirt floor and two small rooms at the back, and the floor plan evolved from a large hall type, where the wooden floor area was divided into four rooms in a rhombus shape (rhombus shape), to a four-room type (rhombus shape). Most of the other floor plans that appear complex were made more complex by adding rooms above the floor of the four-room type, or by installing stables or other structures in the dirt floor area.

[Hirai Sei]

Farm Structure

In Japanese farmhouses, there are two basic structures: one in which the ridgepole is supported by a sashi (a wooden beam) and the other in which the ridgepole is supported by a ridge beam. There are no remains of farmhouses older than the Muromachi period, and it is almost impossible to identify the structures from historical materials such as paintings, so at present it is not possible to clarify the development process of these structures or their regional characteristics. However, since both of these structures were used in ancient shrine and temple architecture, it is safe to assume that they were also used for farmhouses from ancient times. In addition to these two types of structures, a structure called wa-koya (Japanese-style hut) is also used. In this structure, the ridgepole is basically supported by beams standing on the beams, but in addition to the ridgepole, the main house is also supported by beams standing on the beams, and these beams are secured vertically and horizontally with crossbeams, resulting in a neatly assembled, three-dimensional lattice-like structure. In the late Edo period, wa-koya (Japanese-style huts) became mainstream.

[Hirai Sei]

History of Machiya

Unlike farmhouses, town houses are built with their eaves facing the road. Of the ancient capitals, Heijo-kyo is the only one that shows the layout of towns. In Heijo-kyo, the capital was divided into square plots of approximately 40 jo (400 shaku, about 120 meters) by roads, but in the town area, these plots were further divided into two, east-west and eight, north-south, with one-sixteenth being the standard size for one household. In Heian-kyo, a north-south road ran through the center of each 40 jo square plot, and each of the two halves divided by the road was further divided into two, east-west and then eight, north-south. When divided in this way, the frontage of each plot was 5 jo (about 15 meters), but the frontage was about half that, and it is thought that the plots were further divided at the end of the Heian period. Looking at town houses depicted in the "Annual Events Picture Scroll" and other works, the structure is a gabled main house with eaves added to the front and back, with the entrance set on one side of the frontage, and the entrance side was a dirt floor all the way to the back, and the part of the eaves facing the road was also a dirt floor. Part of the main house had wooden floors and a walled nurigome (a wooden veranda). Ancient town houses had relatively large grounds, and people made fields in the back to grow vegetables.

The state of the city of Kyoto in the Middle Ages can be seen from picture scrolls and the "Rakuchu Rakugaizu" folding screen, but it basically follows the structure and plan of town houses from the Heian period. As time went on, two-story buildings began to appear. By the end of the Muromachi period, when the "Rakuchu Rakugaizu" folding screen was painted, the open spaces within the surrounding town houses were hardly partitioned off, and shared toilets and wells were installed in those spaces.

In the early modern period, around the middle of the 17th century, Edo, the base of the shogunate, prospered, and three-story town houses with white-painted exterior walls in the style of castles began to appear on street corners. Since the Heian period, the roofs of town houses have basically been shingled, usually with long slats stacked on top of each other and resting battens on top of them, with stones or relatively large branches placed as weights. In some places, they were shingled with short slats, with stones placed on top of the battens. In the early modern period, tile roofing with real tiles and shingle roofing became common in some advanced regions, but in colder regions, tile roofing was technically impossible until glazed tiles such as salt-grilled tiles were developed. The roof style was usually gabled with a gabled roof, but there were also places with a gabled roof such as Ise and Hirata (Shimane Prefecture).

[Hirai Sei]

Machiya floor plan

A detailed look at the floor plan of a town house reveals regional characteristics, but basically since the Heian period, an entrance has been set up on one side of the frontage, and inside this is usually an earthen floor called a toriniwa, which leads all the way to the back. Three rooms are arranged from the front facing the earthen floor, with the front room facing the road being used as a shop. As the house grew larger, the rooms were arranged in two rows, but other rooms were also set up on the opposite side of the earthen floor facing the road, and rooms and storehouses were built on the rear lot away from the main house.

We can see from the town houses depicted in the "Edo Map Folding Screen" that this type of floor plan was used in Edo as well at first, but as time went on, floor plans without a passageway became common, and houses were designed so that you entered the dirt floor area from the alley between the neighbors or the back alley. As the front of the second floor facing the road is low, it is often used as a storage room, and a sitting room is usually located at the very back.

In the latter part of the Edo period, as merchants' economic power grew, large town houses began to be built in Edo's downtown areas, and these were depicted in ukiyo-e prints and illustrated books of famous places.

[Hirai Sei]

Remains of houses and their preservation

Farmhouses built in the Edo period remain all over the country, but two private homes that are considered even older are said to have been built towards the end of the Muromachi period. However, these farmhouses have not been handed down to the present day in their original form, but have been repeatedly remodeled and expanded as life has changed, so it is impossible to know what they looked like when they were first built unless a thorough investigation of their current state is carried out and as much restoration work as possible is carried out.

Regarding shrine and temple architecture and castles, the Ancient Shrine and Temple Preservation Law was in place before the war, and valuable buildings were designated and repaired or restored for preservation, but private homes were only recognized as having a small amount of folk art value before the war and were not considered to be like shrine and temple architecture, so very few were designated as Important Cultural Properties. After the war, values changed and homes came to be recognized as having artistic or cultural value, and private homes began to be designated as Important Cultural Properties under the Cultural Properties Protection Law.

Due to postwar development and depopulation in mountainous areas, old houses disappeared rapidly. Therefore, houses scheduled for demolition due to development were designated as Important Cultural Properties in advance to protect them, and typical houses that were brought into the limelight and became widely known through the folk art movement were designated as Important Cultural Properties. In addition, from the standpoint of architectural history, houses that show regional characteristics are identified, and after investigating many buildings, a few typical buildings are selected and designated as Important Cultural Properties.

However, the speed at which houses were being lost was so rapid that it was felt that there was an urgent need to find houses in every region across the country that should be preserved, and the Agency for Cultural Affairs carried out an emergency survey of houses in each prefecture. As a result of the survey, representative houses that embody regional characteristics were designated as Important Cultural Properties.

[Hirai Sei]

Townscape

Until now, structures designated as cultural properties have been individual buildings, and townscapes made up of a number of private houses were not eligible for designation. In the case of a streetscape of a row of townhouses, not all of the townhouses that make up the streetscape are necessarily worthy of designation as Important Cultural Properties, so it was difficult to preserve the atmosphere of the town using the previous methods. However, now it is possible to designate streetscapes as targets for preservation, and the national government selects Important Preservation Districts for Groups of Traditional Buildings from among those where local governments have enacted preservation ordinances and taken measures.

[Hirai Sei]

Foreign private houses

China

The Chinese mainland is very large, so there are many ethnic groups and a variety of housing styles, but the most common and central ethnic group is the Han. The Han's housing style is called the Siheyuan style, with four gabled buildings surrounding a courtyard called a Yuanzi. They wear shoes indoors, sleep on a futon, and use a heater for heating. Historically, dwellings in the form of burial holes and pits have been excavated at many ruins, including the Banpo ruins in Xi'an, and many house-shaped Ming vessels excavated from tombs of the Han dynasty are known. Even today, various styles are seen depending on the region, and special examples include the cleft-cavity dwellings built in the Yellow River basin and the huge circular or square Hakka dwellings where large families live together.

[Hirai Sei]

Korean Peninsula

They were generally made of wood with pillars and beams, with painted earthen walls and a thatched roof. Inside, apart from the dirt floor where cooking was done, the interior was divided into several rooms by walls. Each room had an ondol floor covered with oil paper and a wooden floor with exposed timber that would be used as a jossboard and short boards laid between them, and residents took off their shoes when they lived there. The openings were wooden doors and sliding doors similar to shoji screens with thin lattices arranged vertically and horizontally and pasted with paper, hung with a hinged bracket. The floor area was shaped like a rice field, with a dirt floor attached to it, similar to the Japanese four-room layout, but the rooms with ondol had a closed-in feel. The thatched roof was held down with rope, and the straw was woven without creating a ridge. In recent years, policies have led to a decrease in the use of thatched roofs, and cement tiles and other tiled roofs have become more common. Upper class houses in rural areas and private homes in cities are usually made up of a main building and an antechamber with a tiled roof. The main building is where the owner lives and is located at the front, and in addition to a room with an ondol heating system, there is also a room with wooden floors for the summer. The antechamber is where people, mainly women, live. Tile roofs generally have curved eaves and rafters are placed at the corners.

[Hirai Sei]

Southeast Asia

There are various variations depending on the region, but in areas with heavy rainfall during the rainy season, they are basically wooden raised floor structures with an indoor hearth. In some places the hearth is a separate building, and in other places a long wooden floor is built above the water, supported by piles, and a long house is built on top of it, where several families live. A unique form is the large curved gable roof of the Toraja people of Indonesia. Also in Asia, in remote Nepal, urban townhouses are built of brick, with the kitchen on the top floor of a three- or four-story building.

[Hirai Sei]

Middle East

The walls are built with sun-dried bricks and earth, and wooden beams are placed in place to create a flat roof that is then plastered with earth. Small holes are drilled into the walls to serve as windows. Wall paintings reveal that in Egypt, sun-dried bricks have been made to build the walls of houses since ancient times. In addition to these types of houses, there are also tents covered with woolen cloth, inhabited by nomadic peoples. In Turkey, many houses are two-story buildings with a square floor plan and almost the same area on the first and second floors. A partially protruding room on the second floor gives the house a distinctive appearance. People take off their shoes in the living room.

[Hirai Sei]

Europe

Generally, the walls are built of stone or brick and the roof is covered with tiles or slate, but in some regions, they are made of wood. In the case of wooden construction, half-timbered style with thick walls and post-and-beam construction is used in northern Europe and the UK, while in particularly cold regions such as Scandinavia and the mountainous regions of Switzerland, they are made of azekura (storehouse) style.

In recent years, survey data on private homes across the country has been published. Individual private homes are preserved on-site, and open-air private home museums can be seen all over the country. In addition, there are active projects to preserve and restore streetscapes and entire towns.

[Hirai Sei]

"Japanese Folk Houses" edited by Sekino Masaru, 8 volumes (1980-81, Gakken)" ▽ "How to Look at and Research Folk Houses" edited by the Agency for Cultural Affairs (1982, Daiichi Hoki Publishing)" ▽ "History of Medieval Dwellings" by Ito Teij (1958, University of Tokyo Press)" ▽ "Japanese Folk Houses" written by Ito Teiji and photographed by Futagawa Yukio (1980, ADA Editor Tokyo)" ▽ "Dying Folk Houses" by Kawashima Chuji, 3 volumes (1973-76, Shufu to Seikatsusha)" ▽ "Folk Houses Were Alive" by Ito Teiji (1963, Bijutsu Shuppansha)" ▽ "Japanese Art 60 Folk Houses" edited by Yoshida Yasushi (1971, Shibundo) " ▽ "Folk Houses" by Suzuki Mitsuru (Book of Books Japanese Art 37, 1975, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Universal Guide Series 30: Japanese Folk Houses" edited by Yoshikichi Suzuki and written by Satoshi Miyazawa (1985, Shogakukan) " ▽ "Illustrated Japanese Townscapes" edited by Hirotaro Ota et al., 12 volumes (1982, Daiichi Hoki Publishing)

[References] | Dwellings | Rural dwellings | Machiya [Supplementary information] | Japanese traditional houses

Former Sasagawa Family Residence
The residence of the Sasagawa family, who served as the headman of the Murakami domain during the Edo period. The main gate (photo), the main room, and other buildings from the late Edo period to the Meiji period remain, making them valuable remains of the residence of a wealthy farmer at the time. Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Niigata City, Niigata Prefecture © Niigata Prefecture Photographers Association ">

Former Sasagawa Family Residence

Murakami Family Residence
A gassho-style house in the Kaminashi district of Gokayama. It is said to have been built during the Tensho era (1573-1592). It is a large, four-story house with a gabled roof and thatched roof. The attic was used for silkworm farming and other purposes. Inside, several thousand folk materials are on display. Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Part of the World Heritage Site "Gassho-style Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama" (registered in 1995) Nanto City, Toyama Prefecture ©Toyama Tourism Federation ">

Murakami Family Residence

Horiguchi Family Residence
This is a private house said to have been built in the mid-Edo period. It has a hip-and-gable roof and a thatched roof. The layout shows the characteristics of the southern part of the Reihoku region of the prefecture. The Horiguchi family is an old family that once served as village headmen, and was one of the twelve families of the Suna Asagi Shrine. Nationally designated important cultural property Ikeda Town, Imadate County, Fukui Prefecture © Fukui Prefecture Tourism Federation ">

Horiguchi Family Residence

Former Otodo Family Residence
This is a Gassho-style house built between 1833 (Tenpo 4) and 1846 (Koka 3). It is an upper-class farmhouse called Masaya, and is a standard Gassho-style house with a clear construction date. It was moved from Shirakawa Village, Ono County to Gero Onsen Gassho Village when the Miboro Dam was constructed. Nationally designated important cultural property Gero City, Gifu Prefecture © Gifu Prefecture Tourism Federation ">

Former Otodo Family Residence

Egawa Family Residence
This is the residence of the Egawa family, a distinguished family since the Middle Ages, who served as hereditary magistrates during the Edo period. It is known as the family that produced the artillery expert Egawa Hidetatsu. The main house (photo) is said to have been built in the early Edo period, and has a gabled roof and copper roof. Furnishings and historical materials are on display inside. Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Nationally designated Historic Site Izunokuni City, Shizuoka Prefecture © Shizuoka Prefecture Tourism Association ">

Egawa Family Residence

Hakogi family residence (Sennen family)
Nationally designated important cultural property Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture © Kobe International Tourism and Convention Association

Hakogi family residence (Sennen family)

Goto Family Residence
Nationally designated important cultural property Yonago City, Tottori Prefecture ©Tottori Prefecture ">

Goto Family Residence

Farmhouse structural type and Japanese-style hut
©Shogakukan ">

Farmhouse structural type and Japanese-style hut

Floor plan of the Imanishi family residence
Kashihara City, Nara Prefecture ©Shogakukan ">

Floor plan of the Imanishi family residence

Floor plan of the former Sakuda family residence
Kawasaki City, Kanagawa Prefecture Japanese Folk House Museum ©Shogakukan ">

Floor plan of the former Sakuda family residence

Floor plan of the Murakami family home
Nanto City, Toyama Prefecture ©Shogakukan ">

Floor plan of the Murakami family home

Floor plan of the Takano family residence
Koshu City, Yamanashi Prefecture ©Shogakukan

Floor plan of the Takano family residence

Floor plan of the former Nara family residence
Akita City, Akita Prefecture ©Shogakukan ">

Floor plan of the former Nara family residence

Floor plan of the Horiuchi family residence
Shiojiri City, Nagano Prefecture ©Shogakukan ">

Floor plan of the Horiuchi family residence

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

庶民の住まい。歴史的な庶民の住まいをさすことが多い。狭義には江戸時代までの農家をさし、広義には江戸時代までの農家と町屋、そしてその伝統を残している明治以後の農家と町屋を含めるのが普通である。庶民の住まいでも、現代的な農家・町屋や、都市住宅は民家とはいわない。昭和の初期に、建築家たちが地方に残っていた古い農家を尋ね歩いて、美しくそして地域を代表するような家を探し出し紹介している。同じころ広まった柳宗悦(むねよし)を中心とする民芸運動と相まって、美しい古い伝統的な民家が脚光を浴びることになった。

［平井　聖］

農家の歴史

現存するもっとも古い遺構は、室町時代のものである。兵庫県にある古井家住宅と箱木家住宅で、千年家(せんねんや)とよばれている。軒先が低く、屋根が覆いかぶさった、素朴な姿を伝えている。

　室町時代以前の農家は残っていないが、唐古(からこ)遺跡（奈良県）のような竪穴(たてあな)住居の集落が、弥生(やよい)時代の遺跡としてあちらこちらで発掘されている。弥生時代に稲作が伝えられたとき、稲作とともに住まいとして、床が地表面から1メートルほど高い高床(たかゆか)住居が伝えられたと考えられる。そのような住まいの形式は、北九州や瀬戸内海沿岸地域で発見されている。稲作は、日本にもたらされてから短期間に関東地方の北あたりまで広まったが、それらの地域では高床の建物は倉庫だけで、引き続き住まいは竪穴住居であった。したがって、弥生時代になっても、住まいとして広く使われていたのは竪穴住居で、平面は、隅の丸い四角のもの、丸に近いもの、六角形のものなど地域によって変化がみられた。

　そのほか登呂(とろ)遺跡の住まいのように、構造形式は竪穴住居とまったく同じでも、実際には周囲に土を盛っていて、生活面はほとんど掘り下げられていない平地住居の形式もあった。稲作をするようになると、水田をつくるのに適した低湿な土地に住まいをつくることになって、湿気の関係で竪穴住居のように掘り下げることができなくなり、平地住居に変わるか、竪穴住居の床面に木の枝や藁(わら)などを敷いて生活していたことが、発掘の成果から明らかになる場合がある。

　古代・中世の農家についてはほとんど史料がないが、絵巻物や屏風(びょうぶ)に描かれた絵の中に、わずかではあるが農家らしい建物が認められる。鎌倉時代に描かれた『信貴山(しぎさん)縁起絵巻』では、都から信貴山に向かう途中の田園に板葺(ぶ)き切妻屋根の農家が見られる。同じ鎌倉時代に描かれた『一遍上人(いっぺんしょうにん)絵伝』に描かれた農家は、多くは一棟ではなく、幾棟かの建物から構成されている。絵巻物のほかに、室町時代になると京都を描いた『洛中(らくちゅう)洛外図屏風』に、土塀を巡らし幾棟もの建物から構成された洛外の農家が描かれている。

　江戸時代に入って、関東地方の宇都宮近郊の農村のようすが、徳川将軍が日光の東照宮に参詣(さんけい)したときに、家来たちの宿泊のために村中の家の平面図を書き出させた史料から、明らかになる。それらのうちの18世紀の史料をみると、当時の農村は20坪（約66平方メートル）前後の家がもっとも多く、4～5坪の家もあり、10坪に満たない小さな家も多かったのに対して、大きな家はわずかであったことや、現在は太平洋岸地帯にだけ残る竈(かまど)のある土間の部分を別棟にして母屋から離した分棟型の農家が、18世紀には海岸線から遠い宇都宮近郊にもたくさんあったことがわかる。

［平井　聖］

農家の形式

もっとも古い農家の遺構である室町時代の古井家住宅では、開口部の少ない姿が復原されている。内部も梁(はり)などの小屋材だけでなく床板や柱もちょうなや槍鉋(やりがんな)で仕上げ、台鉋は使われていない。

　江戸時代に、農家はそれぞれの地域の風土や産業によって、特色ある形をつくりだした。基本となるのは、長方形の平面に寄棟や切妻の屋根をかけた形式であるが、養蚕のために切妻の屋根が大きく発達した飛騨(ひだ)の合掌造や、大きな切妻の屋根の中央部を切り上げた甲州の民家の形式があり、また厩(うまや)を取り込んだ東北地方の曲屋(まがりや)や中門(ちゅうもん)造、勾配(こうばい)の緩い大きな切妻屋根と破風(はふ)の上につけられた雀(すずめ)踊りを特徴とする本棟(ほんむね)造、奈良盆地を中心とする大和棟(やまとむね)、九州北部のくど造などさまざまな形式がみられる。

［平井　聖］

農家の間取り

古い農家は、間取りが単純である。そして規模もそれほど大きくない。18世紀ごろになっても小さい農家は単純な間取りで、まったく間仕切のない一部屋の場合もまれではない。江戸時代のなかばを過ぎても、家全体が一部屋の土間で、必要に応じて部屋の半分ほどに籾(もみ)を敷き莚(むしろ)を重ねただけの家もあった。しかし一般的には、建物の半分ほどを土間とし、あとの部分を土間に面する大きな板敷きの部屋とその奥の小さな二部屋とに分けた広間型の平面から、板敷の床のある部分を田の字型に四部屋に分けた四間取り型（田の字型）へと発展している。そのほかの複雑にみえる平面も、ほとんどが四間取り型の床上部分にさらに部屋が加わって複雑になったものや、土間の部分に厩などが設けられて複雑になったものである。

［平井　聖］

農家の構造

日本の農家の構造には、基本的に扠首(さす)によって棟木を支える架構と棟束(むねつか)によって棟木を支える架構とがある。農家は室町時代より古い遺構がないうえに、絵画などの史料では架構を確かめることがほとんど不可能で、いまのところ、これらの架構の発展過程や、地域的特色などを明らかにすることはできない。しかし、この両架構形式ともに、古代の社寺建築に用いられているところから、農家においても古くから使われていた架構形式であったと考えてよかろう。これらの2種類の架構形式のほかに、和小屋とよばれている架構形式も使われている。この架構形式は、基本的には棟木を梁の上に立つ束が支えているが、棟木のほかに母屋もそれぞれ梁の上に立つ束によって支えられ、それらの束を縦横に貫(ぬき)で固めていて、整然と組み上げられた立体的な格子状の架構が特徴となっている。江戸時代後期には、この和小屋が主流になる。

［平井　聖］

町屋の歴史

町屋は農家と違って道路に面して軒を連ねて建っている。古代の都のうちで町割のようすがわかるのは平城京である。平城京では、京内が道路によってほぼ40丈（400尺、約120メートル）の正方形の区画に分けられていたが、町屋の地域ではこの区画をさらに東西に二分、南北に八分して、16分の1を一戸の基準としていた。平安京では、40丈四方の正方形の区画の中央に南北の道路があり、この道路で二分されたそれぞれをさらに東西に二分したうえで、南北に八分していた。このように区画すると、一つの敷地の間口は5丈（約15メートル）となるが、また、間口はその半分くらいで、平安時代の末には敷地はさらに細分されたと考えられる。『年中行事絵巻』などに描かれている町屋をみると、その構造は切妻平入(ひらいり)の母屋の前後に庇(ひさし)を加えた形式で、間口の一方に寄せて入口を設け、入口の側は奥まで土間で、道路に面した庇の部分も土間であった。母屋の一部は板床が張られ、壁で囲まれた塗籠(ぬりごめ)があった。古代の町屋は敷地が比較的広く、裏で畑をつくり野菜を栽培していた。

　中世の京の町の状況は、絵巻物と『洛中洛外図』屏風から知ることができるが、基本的には平安時代の町屋の構造・平面を踏襲している。時代が下るとともに二階建てがみられるようになる。『洛中洛外図』屏風が描かれた室町時代末には、周囲に町屋の建っている区画内の空地をほとんど仕切らず、その空地に共同の便所や井戸を設けている。

　近世に入って17世紀なかばころになると、幕府の本拠である江戸では町が繁栄し、街角に城郭風に外壁を白く塗り籠めた三階建ての町屋もみられるようになる。町屋の屋根は、平安時代以来、板葺きが基本で、通常長板を重ねて葺いた上に押さえの桟をのせ、この桟に石や比較的大きな枝の重石(おもし)をのせていた。所によって短い板で葺く所もあり、桟なしに石を置いていた。近世になると本瓦(がわら)や桟瓦の瓦葺きが一部の先進地域でみられるようになるが、寒冷な地域では塩焼瓦のような釉薬(ゆうやく)のかかった瓦ができるまで瓦葺きは技術的に無理であった。また、屋根の形式は普通、切妻平入で、伊勢(いせ)や平田（島根県）などのように妻入(つまいり)の所もある。

［平井　聖］

町屋の間取り

町屋の平面も細かくみれば地域的な特色があるが、基本的には平安時代以来間口の一方によって入口を設け、その内が普通奥まで通ずる通り庭とよばれる土間になっている。部屋は土間に面して表から三室を配し、道路に面する表の部屋を店としている。規模が大きくなると部屋を二列に配するようになるが、ほかに道路に面して土間の反対側にも部屋を設けたり、裏の敷地に主屋から離れて部屋や土蔵を設けたりするようになる。

　江戸でも初めはこのような形式の平面構成であったことが『江戸図屏風』に描かれた町屋からわかるが、時代が下ると通り庭のない平面が一般的になり、隣との間の路地か裏の路地から勝手の土間に入るような造りに変わっている。二階は道路に面した表が低いので、表側を物置のような使い方とすることが多く、いちばん奥に座敷を設ける程度である。

　江戸時代の後期にもなると、商人たちの経済力が強くなるにつれて、江戸の繁華街には規模の大きな町屋がつくられるようになり、そのようすが浮世絵や名所図会などに描かれている。

［平井　聖］

民家の遺構と保存

江戸時代につくられた農家は全国各地に残っているが、さらに古いとされる民家は、室町時代の末ごろにつくられたといわれている二棟である。もっともそれらの農家は、現在までそのままの姿で伝わっているのではなく、生活の変化とともに改造や増築が繰り返されているから、現状をよく調べてわかる限りの復原作業を行ったうえでないと、建てられたときの姿を知ることはできない。

　社寺建築や城郭については、戦前から古社寺保存法があって、価値ある建物の指定や保存のための修理あるいは復原工事が行われてきたが、民家は、戦前には民芸的な価値がわずかに認められていただけで、社寺建築のようには考えられていなかったので、重要文化財に指定されたものはほとんどなかった。戦後になって価値観が変わり、住宅にも芸術的あるいは文化的な価値が認められるようになって、民家も重要文化財として文化財保護法による指定が行われるようになった。

　戦後の開発や山間部の過疎化によって、古い民家は急速に消滅していった。そこで、開発によって取り壊されることになった民家を事前に重要文化財に指定して保護したり、民芸運動によって脚光を浴び広く知られるようになった典型的な民家が指定されることになった。また、建築史学の立場から地域的に特色をみせる民家をとらえ、数多くの建物を調査したうえで典型的な何棟かを拾い上げて指定することも行われている。

　しかし、民家が失われていくスピードが早く、全国的にすべての地域について保存すべき民家を緊急に探し出す必要があると考えられるようになり、文化庁は県ごとに民家の緊急調査を実施した。調査の結果から、地域的な特色を備える代表的な民家が、重要文化財に指定されている。

［平井　聖］

町並み

文化財としてこれまで指定されてきた建造物は個々の建物であって、民家はそれがいくつか集まってできた町並みは指定の対象とはされなかった。町屋の続く町並みは、町並みを形成するすべての町屋が重要文化財として指定するに値するとは限らないので、これまでの方法では町の雰囲気を保つことはむずかしかった。しかし現在は、町並みを保存の対象とすることができるようになり、地方自治体において保存のための条例を制定し、対策を講じたもののなかから、国は重要伝統的建造物群保存地区を選定している。

［平井　聖］

外国の民家

中国

中国大陸はたいへん広いので多くの民族が存在しさまざまな住まいがみられるが、もっとも多くそして中心となる民族は漢族である。漢族の住まいの形式は四合院(しごういん)式とよばれ、切妻の四棟の建物が院子とよばれる中庭を囲んでいる。屋内は土足で生活し、寝るのに牀(しょう)（床）という寝台、暖房にはかんを使っている。歴史的には、袋穴形式や堅穴形式などの住居が半坡(はんぱ)遺跡（西安(せいあん)）など多くの遺跡で発掘され、漢代の墓から出土した家形の明器(めいき)が数多く知られている。現代でも地域によってさまざまな形式がみられ、特殊な例としては黄河流域などでつくられている窰洞(ヤオトン)住居や、大家族が集まって住むための巨大な円形あるいは方形の客家(ハッカ)の住居のようなものがある。

［平井　聖］

朝鮮半島

木造の柱梁(ちゅうりょう)構造で土壁を塗り、藁屋根が一般的であった。内部は炊事等の場である土間のほかは、壁でいくつかの部屋に仕切られている。それぞれの部屋は、油紙を貼(は)ったオンドル床と、大引(おおびき)にあたる材を現し、その間に短い板を渡して張った板張りの床で、土足を脱いで生活している。開口部は、板扉と、縦横に細い桟を組んで紙を貼った障子のような建具を肘壺(ひじつぼ)で吊(つ)っていた。平面は床のある部分を田の字型にし、これに土間をつけていて日本の四間取りと似ているが、オンドルのある部屋は閉鎖的である。屋根の藁葺きは縄で押さえ、棟をつくらず藁を編むようにしている。近年、政策によって藁屋根は少なくなり、セメント瓦等の瓦葺きが多くなった。農村部の上層民家や都会の民家は、瓦葺きで主屋棟と副屋棟から構成されているのが普通である。主屋棟は主人の住まいで表にあり、オンドルのある部屋のほかに、夏のために板床の部屋がある。副屋棟は、婦人を中心とする人々の生活の場である。瓦屋根は、一般的に軒反りをもち、円垂木(たるき)を隅扇に配している。

［平井　聖］

東南アジア

地域によってさまざまな変化がみられるが、雨期に雨量が多いところから、基本的には木造の高床構造で、屋内に炉をもっている。炉を別棟にしている所や、水上に杭(くい)で支えた木造の長い床をつくり、その上に長い家をつくって何家族もが暮らす所もある。形の変わったものでは、インドネシアのトラジャの反り上がった大きな切妻屋根が、象徴的である。同じアジア地域でも、奥地のネパールでは、都会の町屋はれんがでつくられ、台所が3、4階建ての最上階にある。

［平井　聖］

中近東

日干しれんがや土で壁を積み、木の梁をかけて土を塗った平らな屋根をつくる。壁に小さな穴をあけて窓としている。エジプトでは、古代から家の壁を積むために日干しれんがをつくっていたことが、壁画から明らかになる。このような家のほかに、遊牧民族が生活する毛織物の布を張ったテントの家もある。また、トルコでは、方形平面の1、2階ほとんど同面積の二階建てが多い。二階には一部張り出した部屋があって、外観を特徴づけている。居間では靴を脱いで生活している。

［平井　聖］

ヨーロッパ

一般的に石やれんがで壁を築き、屋根を瓦あるいはスレートで葺くが、地域によって木造である。木造の場合、ヨーロッパ北部やイギリスでは柱梁構造で厚く壁をつけたハーフティンバリング形式となり、スカンジナビアやスイス山間部のようなとくに寒冷な地域では校倉(あぜくら)造である。

　近年各国で全国的な民家の調査資料が出版されている。個々の民家を現地で保存するほか、移築して民家野外博物館も各地でみられる。そのほか、町並みや町全体の保存・修景事業も盛んに行われている。

［平井　聖］

『関野克監修『日本の民家』全8巻（1980～81・学習研究社）』▽『文化庁監修『民家のみかた調べかた』（1982・第一法規出版）』▽『伊藤鄭爾著『中世住居史』（1958・東京大学出版会）』▽『伊藤ていじ文・二川幸夫写真『日本の民家』（1980・エーディーエー・エディタ・トーキョー）』▽『川島宙次著『滅びゆく民家』全3巻（1973～76・主婦と生活社）』▽『伊藤ていじ著『民家は生きていた』（1963・美術出版社）』▽『吉田靖編『日本の美術60　民家』（1971・至文堂）』▽『鈴木充著『民家』（ブック・オブ・ブックス『日本の美術37』1975・小学館）』▽『鈴木嘉吉監修・宮沢智士執筆『万有ガイドシリーズ30　日本の民家』（1985・小学館）』▽『太田博太郎他編『図説日本の町並み』全12巻（1982・第一法規出版）』

[参照項目] | 住居 | 農村住居 | 町屋[補完資料] | 日本の民家

旧笹川家住宅

村上家住宅
五箇山の上梨地区にある合掌造住宅。天正年間（1573―1592）に建てられたと伝えられる。4階建ての大規模住宅で、切妻造かや葺き。小屋裏は養蚕などに用いられた。内部には数千点の民俗資料が展示されている。国指定重要文化財　世界文化遺産「白川郷・五箇山の合掌造り集落」の一部（1995年登録）　富山県南砺市©公益社団法人富山県観光連盟">

村上家住宅

堀口家住宅
江戸時代中期の建築といわれる民家。入母屋造かや葺き。間取りなどに県内嶺北地域南部の特色がみられる。堀口家は庄屋を務めたこともある旧家で、須波阿須疑神社十二軒衆の一軒であった。国指定重要文化財　福井県今立郡池田町©公益社団法人福井県観光連盟">

堀口家住宅

旧大戸家住宅
1833年（天保4）から1846年（弘化3）にかけて建築された合掌造の民家。政屋とよばれた上層農家で、建築年代の明らかな合掌造の基準作である。御母衣ダム建設の際、大野郡白川村から下呂温泉合掌村に移築された。国指定重要文化財　岐阜県下呂市©一般社団法人岐阜県観光連盟">

旧大戸家住宅

江川家住宅
中世からの名家で、江戸時代には世襲代官を務めた江川家の居館。砲術家江川英龍を出した家として知られる。主屋（写真）は江戸時代前期の建築といわれ、入母屋造銅板葺き。室内には調度品や歴史資料が展示されている。国指定重要文化財　国指定史跡　静岡県伊豆の国市©静岡県観光協会">

江川家住宅

箱木家住宅（千年家）

後藤家住宅

農家の架構形式と和小屋

今西家住宅の平面図

旧作田家住宅の平面図