Experimental psychology

Japanese: 実験心理学 - じっけんしんりがく(英語表記)experimental psychology
Experimental psychology
Experimental psychology is psychology that uses experiments as a research method and is based on the results of those experiments, and is the name given to a research field that introduced experimental methods relatively early on. It can also refer to the experimental method in psychology.

The birth of experimental psychology is usually considered to have begun in 1879, when Wundt's psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig was officially recognized for the first time in the world, but it can also be said to have begun in 1860, when GT Fechner wrote "Elemente der Psychophysik." The psychophysical method he used, which aims to quantitatively measure sensations, is a very reliable and objective method, and is still widely used today in research on sensation and perception. Donders, FC (1868) also attempted to measure reaction time precisely, and proposed the subtraction method, which measures the time required for mental processes to discriminate by the difference between the time when a discrimination task is given and the simple reaction time. This was also the time when Helmholtz, H. and others were actively researching sensory physiology. These are the historical background of the establishment of experimental psychology.

Bund defined the subject of psychology as direct experience, that is, consciousness (English) or Bewusstsein (German). He advocated introspection (English) or Selbstbeobachtung (German), in which psychologists observe and analyze their own consciousness to use as basic data for psychology. However, the problems that can be studied using introspection are limited. Bund himself made extensive use of psychophysical and reaction time measurements, and expanded his consideration to the psychological states of infants and animals. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885), inspired by Fechner, next applied experimental and quantitative methods to memory problems.

In the 20th century, Gestalt psychology was born from Wertheimer, M.'s (1912) research on apparent movement, which emphasized phenomenal observation over analytical introspection and had a great influence on perception research. Furthermore, behaviorism advocated by Watson, JB (1913) stated that the task of psychology is to clarify the relationship between stimuli and responses, and to predict and control responses through stimuli. Later, neo-behaviorism by Tolman, EC (1932) and Hull, CL (1943) attempted to indirectly link independent and dependent variables by placing a hypothetical intervening variable between the independent variable (stimuli and other conditions) and the dependent variable (behavior). The intervening variables they considered were the habits and motivations of the organism. Furthermore, cognitive psychology, which views psychological processes as information processing processes, has become popular since the 1970s and has had a major impact on research into attention, mental imagery, memory, and thought in particular.

The subjects of experimental psychology's research, such as sensation, perception, learning, memory, attention, cognition, needs, feelings, emotions, and thinking, cannot be observed by others. They are considered to be mediating variables assumed between conditions such as stimuli (independent variables) and responses (dependent variables). In experimental psychology, simple and specific conditions are often created in a planned manner using experimental equipment in a laboratory, and these conditions are systematically changed, and responses are rigorously measured using measuring instruments to investigate the functional relationship between conditions and results. Experiments can be repeated under the same conditions, and reliability can be increased by increasing the number of experiments, and objectivity can be increased by repeating and verifying independently by different researchers. In addition, the most suitable conditions may be intentionally set to verify a particular hypothesis.

Unlike the introspection method of the Bund era, in today's psychology the experimenter and the research subject are different people. The person who is the subject of an experiment is called a subject (S) (UK), Versuchsperson (Vp.) (German), or participant (experimental collaborator). Depending on the research topic, they may also be called an observer (O) (UK) or Beobachter (German). It is necessary to respect the privacy and human rights of the subjects, and take every possible care to avoid causing them mental or physical harm. In some cases, animals are used as subjects, as their genetic predisposition, upbringing, and living environment can be strictly controlled. →Researcher ethics →History of psychology →Psychophysical measurement methods [Oyama Tadashi]

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Japanese:
実験心理学とは,実験を研究の手段とし,その成果に基づいた心理学であり,比較的早い時期に実験法を導入した研究領域をその名でよぶ。また,心理学における実験法を指すこともある。

 実験心理学の成立は,ブントWundt,W.がライプチヒ大学に創設した心理学実験室が世界で初めて公認された1879年をその誕生とするのが通例であるが,フェヒナーFechner,G.T.が『精神物理学原論Elemente der Psychophysik』を著わした1860年を始まりとすることもできる。彼が用いた感覚の数量的測定をめざす精神物理学的測定法psychophysical methodはきわめて手堅い客観的な方法であり,今日でも広く感覚や知覚の研究に用いられている。またドンデルスDonders,F.C.(1868)は,反応時間reaction timeの精密な測定を試み,弁別課題を与えた時と単純な反応時間の差から,弁別に要する精神過程の時間を測定する減算法subtraction methodを提唱した。また当時はヘルムホルツHelmholtz,H.らの感覚生理学研究が盛んになった時代でもあった。これらが実験心理学成立の歴史的背景をなしている。

 ブントは心理学の研究対象を直接経験すなわち意識consciousness(英),Bewusstsein(独)であると定義した。彼は心理学者が各自の意識を観察し,分析して,心理学の基本データとする内観法introspection(英),Selbstbeobachtung(独)を提唱した。しかし,内観法で研究できる問題は限られている。ブント自身も精神物理学的測定法や反応時間測定法を広く用い,幼児や動物の心理状態にも考察を広げている。続いてエビングハウスEbbinghaus,H.(1885)はフェヒナーに啓発されて,実験的・数量的方法を記憶の問題に適用した。

 20世紀に入ると,ウェルトハイマーWertheimer,M.(1912)の仮現運動の研究を契機に誕生したゲシュタルト心理学Gestalt psychologyは,分析的内観よりも,現象的観察を重んじ,知覚研究などに大きな影響を与えた。さらにワトソンWatson,J.B.(1913)が主張した行動主義behaviorismでは,刺激stimulusと反応responseの関係を明らかにして,刺激により反応を予測し統制することを心理学の課題であるとした。その後トールマンTolman,E.C.(1932),ハルHull,C.L.(1943)などの新行動主義neo-behaviorismでは,独立変数である刺激などの条件と従属変数である行動との間に仮説的な仲介変数(媒介変数)intervening variableを介在させて,独立変数と従属変数を間接的に結びつけようとした。彼らが考えた仲介変数は,有機体の習慣や動機であった。さらに,1970年代からは心理過程を情報処理過程とみなす認知心理学cognitive psychologyが盛んになり,とくに注意,心像,記憶,思考研究に大きな影響を与えている。

 実験心理学の研究対象である感覚,知覚,学習,記憶,注意,認知,要求,感情,情動,思考などは,他者が観察できるものではない。独立変数である刺激などの条件と従属変数である反応の間に仮定される仲介変数と考えられる。実験心理学では,多くの場合,実験室中で実験装置を用いて,単純で特殊な条件を計画的に作り,それを組織的に変化し,反応を測定器を用いて厳密に測定して,条件と結果との関数関係を追究する。実験は同一条件において繰り返すことが可能であり,実験回数を増やして信頼性を高め,異なった研究者によって独立に反復検証することで客観性を高められる。また,特定の仮説を検証するために最も適した条件を意図的に設定することもある。

 ブント時代の内観法と異なり,今日の心理学では実験者と研究対象の人とは別人である。実験の対象となる人は被験者subject(S)(英),Versuchsperson(Vp.)(独),実験参加者participant(実験協力者)などとよばれる。また研究テーマによっては観察者observer(O)(英),Beobachter(独)ともよばれる。被験者のプライバシーと人権を尊重し,精神的・身体的危害を与えないように万全の注意が必要である。遺伝的素因や生育歴,生活環境などの厳密な統制が容易な動物を被験体として使う場合もある。 →研究者倫理 →心理学史 →精神物理学的測定法
〔大山 正〕

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